Current Problems in Surgery
Volume 43, Issue 1 , Pages 12-65 , January 2006

The Management of Postoperative Ileus

References 

  1. Stedman’s Medical Dictionary . 27th ed.. Baltimore, MD: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2000;
  2. Livingston EH , Passaro EP . Postoperative ileus . Dig Dis Sci . 1990;35:121–132
  3. Luckey A , Livingston E , Tache Y . Mechanisms and treatment of postoperative ileus . Arch Surg . 2003;138:206–214
  4. Holte K , Kehlet H . Postoperative ileus (a preventable event) . Br J Surg . 2000;87:1480–1493
  5. Holte K , Kehlet H . Postoperative ileus (progress towards effective management) . Drugs . 2002;62:2603–2615
  6. Bauer AJ , Boeckxstaens GE . Mechanisms of postoperative ileus . Neurogastroenterol Motil . 2004;16(Suppl 2):54–60
  7. Kehlet H . Postoperative ileus . Gut . 2000;47(Suppl 4):iv85–iv87
  8. Kalff JC , Schraut WH , Simmons RL , Bauer AJ . Surgical manipulation of the gut elicits an intestinal muscularis inflammatory response resulting in postsurgical ileus . Ann Surg . 1998;228:652–663
  9. Bederman SS , Betsy M , Winiarsky R , Seldes RM , Sharrock NE , Sculco TP . Postoperative ileus in the lower extremity arthroplasty patient . J Arthroplasty . 2001;16:1066–1070
  10. Gonzalez Ojeda A , Orozco Mosqueda A , Barrera Zepeda L , Fuentes Orozco C , Avalos Gonzalez J , Hinojosa Alarcon F , et al.   Abdominal complications after cardiopulmonary procedures . Rev Gastroenterol Mex . 1999;64:61–69
  11. Bueno L , Ferre JP , Ruckebusch Y . Effects of anesthesia and surgical procedures on intestinal myoelectric activity in rats . Am J Dig Dis . 1978;23:690–695
  12. Cannon WB , Murphy FT . The movement of the stomach and intestine in some surgical conditions . Ann Surg . 1906;43:512–536
  13. Bayliss WM , Starling EH . The movements and innervations of the small intestine . J Physiol (Lond) . 1899;24:99–143
  14. Williams EM , Streeten DH . Relief of postoperative pain and intestinal motility . Lancet . 1950;2:213–214
  15. Streeten DH . The effects of sodium and chloride lack on intestinal motility and their significance in paralytic ileus . Surg Gynecol Obstet . 1950;91:421–434
  16. Williams EM , Streeten DH . The action of morphine, pethidine, and amidone upon the intestinal motility of conscious dogs . Br J Pharmacol . 1950;5:584–603
  17. Haverback BJ , Hogben CA , Moran NC , Terry LL . Effect of serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine) and related compounds on gastric secretion and intestinal motility in the dog . Gastroenterology . 1957;32:1058–1065
  18. McPhail JL , Hardy JD , Conn JH , Schor J , Robinson S . Studies in postoperative ileus (intestinal motility as reflected in the propulsion of radiopaque materials) . Surg Forum . 1958;9:471–472
  19. Salvini L . Anesthetic factors in the determination of postoperative intestinal motility . Minerva Anestesiol . 1958;24:371–382
  20. Kock NG . An experimental analysis of mechanisms engaged in reflex inhibition of intestinal motility . Acta Physiol Scand . 1959;47(Suppl 164):1–54
  21. Wells C , Rawlinson K , Tinckler L , Jones H , Saunders J . Ileus and postoperative intestinal motility . Lancet . 1961;2:136–137
  22. Gershon MD . Inhibition of gastrointestinal movement by sympathetic nerve stimulation (the site of action) . J Physiol . 1967;189:317–327
  23. Kelts KA , Bignall KE . Sympathetic nerve activity during reflex spinal inhibition of intestinal motility . Am J Physiol . 1974;227:703–709
  24. Gershon MD . The enteric nervous system . Annu Rev Neurosci . 1981;4:227–272
  25. Tanila H , Kauppila T , Taira T . Inhibition of intestinal motility and reversal of postlaparotomy ileus by selective alpha 2-adrenergic drugs in the rat . Gastroenterology . 1993;104:819–824
  26. Makhlouf GM . Smooth muscle of the gut . In:  Yamada T editors. Textbook of Gastroenterology . 3rd ed.. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 1999;p. 82–105
  27. Horowitz A , Menice CB , Laporte R , Morgan KG . Mechanisms of smooth muscle contraction . Physiol Rev . 1996;76:967–1003
  28. Takaki M . Gut pacemaker cells (the interstitial cells of Cajal (ICC)) . J Smooth Muscle Res . 2003;39:137–161
  29. Furness JB , Costa M . The Enteric Nervous System . 1st ed.. New York: Churchill Livingstone; 1987;
  30. Gershon MD . The Second Brain . 1st ed.. London: HarperCollins; 1998;
  31. Goyal RK , Hirano I . The enteric nervous system . N Engl J Med . 1996;334:1106–1115
  32. Szurszewski JH . A migrating electric complex of canine small intestine . Am J Physiol . 1969;217:1757–1763
  33. Carlson GM , Bedi BS , Code CF . Mechanism of propagation of intestinal interdigestive myoelectric complex . Am J Physiol . 1972;222:1027–1030
  34. Sarna SK . Cyclic motor activity; migrating motor complex (1985) . Gastroenterology . 1985;89:894–913
  35. Rees WD , Malagelada JR , Miller LJ , Go VL . Human interdigestive and postprandial gastrointestinal motor and gastrointestinal hormone patterns . Dig Dis Sci . 1982;27:321–329
  36. Clevers GJ , Smout AJ , van der Schee EJ , Akkermans LM . Myo-electrical and motor activity of the stomach in the first days after abdominal surgery (evaluation by electrogastrography and impedance gastrography) . J Gastroenterol Hepatol . 1991;6:253–259
  37. Dauchel J , Schang JC , Kachelhoffer J , Eloy R , Grenier JF . Gastrointestinal myoelectrical activity during the postoperative period in man . Digestion . 1976;14:293–303
  38. Miedema BW , Schillie S , Simmons JW , Burgess SV , Liem T , Silver D . Small bowel motility and transit after aortic surgery . J Vasc Surg . 2002;36:19–24
  39. Benson MJ , Roberts JP , Wingate DL , Rogers J , Deeks JJ , Castillo FD , et al.   Small bowel motility following major intra-abdominal surgery (the effects of opiates and rectal cisapride) . Gastroenterology . 1994;106:924–936
  40. Miedema BW , Johnson JO . Methods for decreasing postoperative gut dysmotility . Lancet Oncol . 2003;4:365–372
  41. Behm B , Stollman N . Postoperative ileus (etiologies and interventions) . Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol . 2003;1:71–80
  42. Wilson JP . Postoperative motility of the large intestine in man . Gut . 1975;16:689–692
  43. Woods JH , Erickson LW , Condon RE , Schulte WJ , Sillin LF . Postoperative ileus (a colonic problem?) . Surgery . 1978;84:527–533
  44. Condon RE , Frantzides CT , Cowles VE , Mahoney JL , Schulte WJ , Sarna SK . Resolution of postoperative ileus in humans . Ann Surg . 1986;203:574–581
  45. Huge A , Kreis ME , Zittel TT , Becker HD , Starlinger MJ , Jehle EC . Postoperative colonic motility and tone in patients after colorectal surgery . Dis Colon Rectum . 2000;43:932–939
  46. Smith J , Kelly KA , Weinshilboum RM . Pathophysiology of postoperative ileus . Arch Surg . 1977;112:203–209
  47. Bernstein A , Wright AC , Spencer D . Phaeochromocytoma as a cause of gastro-intestinal distension . Postgrad Med J . 1967;43(497):180–183
  48. Landman MD , Longmire WP . Neural and hormonal influences of peritonitis on paralytic ileus . Am Surg . 1967;33:756–762
  49. Esser MJ , Mahoney JL , Robinson JC , Cowles VE , Condon RE . Effects of adrenergic agents on colonic motility . Surgery . 1987;102:416–423
  50. Hallerback B , Carlsen E , Carlsson K , Enkvist C , Glise H , Haffner J , et al.   Beta-adrenoceptor blockade in the treatment of postoperative adynamic ileus . Scand J Gastroenterol . 1987;22:149–155
  51. Heimbach DM , Crout JR . Treatment of paralytic ileus with adrenergic neuronal blocking drugs . Surgery . 1971;69:582–587
  52. Dubois A , Henry DP , Kopin IJ . Plasma catecholamines and postoperative gastric emptying and small intestinal propulsion in the rat . Gastroenterology . 1975;68:466–469
  53. Meltzer SJ , Auer J . Peristaltic movements of the rabbit’s cecum and their inhibition, with demonstration . Proc Soc Exp Biol Med . 1907;4:37–40
  54. Douglas DM , Mann FC . The effect of peritoneal irritation on the activity of the intestine . BMJ . 1941;1:227–231
  55. Holzer P , Lippe IT , Holzer-Petsche U . Inhibition of gastrointestinal transit due to surgical trauma or peritoneal irritation is reduced in capsaicin-treated rats . Gastroenterology . 1986;91:360–363
  56. Plourde V , Wong HC , Walsh JH , Raybould HE , Tache Y . CGRP antagonists and capsaicin on celiac ganglia partly prevent postoperative gastric ileus . Peptides . 1993;14:1225–1229
  57. Zittel TT , Reddy SN , Plourde V , Raybould HE . Role of spinal afferents and calcitonin gene-related peptide in the postoperative gastric ileus in anesthetized rats . Ann Surg . 1994;219:79–87
  58. Zittel TT , Lloyd KC , Rothenhofer I , Wong H , Walsh JH , Raybould HE . Calcitonin gene-related peptide and spinal afferents partly mediate postoperative colonic ileus in the rat . Surgery . 1998;123:518–527
  59. Boeckxstaens GE , Hirsch DP , Kodde A , Moojen TM , Blackshaw A , Tytgat GN , et al.   Activation of an adrenergic and vagally-mediated NANC pathway in surgery-induced fundic relaxation in the rat . Neurogastroenterol Motil . 1999;11:467–474
  60. Holzer P , Lippe IT , Amann R . Participation of capsaicin-sensitive afferent neurons in gastric motor inhibition caused by laparotomy and intraperitoneal acid . Neuroscience . 1992;48:715–722
  61. Barquist E , Bonaz B , Martinez V , Rivier J , Zinner MJ , Tache Y . Neuronal pathways involved in abdominal surgery-induced gastric ileus in rats . Am J Physiol . 1996;270(4 Pt 2):R888–R894
  62. De Winter BY , Boeckxstaens GE , De Man JG , Moreels TG , Herman AG , Pelckmans PA . Effect of adrenergic and nitrergic blockade on experimental ileus in rats . Br J Pharmacol . 1997;120:464–468
  63. Bojo L , Cassuto J , Nellgard P , Jonsson A . Adrenergic, cholinergic and VIP-ergic influence on gastric phasic motility in the rat . Acta Physiol Scand . 1994;150:67–73
  64. Bult H , Boeckxstaens GE , Pelckmans PA , Jordaens FH , Van Maercke YM , Herman AG . Nitric oxide as an inhibitory non-adrenergic non-cholinergic neurotransmitter . Nature . 1990;24:346–347 345(6273)
  65. Moojen TM , Van Gulik TM , Hoek FJ , Gouma DJ , Tytgat GN , Boeckxstaens GE . Possible role of nitric oxide in postoperative ileus (a comparative study) . Neurogastroenterol Motil . 1999;11:403–408
  66. Kalff JC , Schraut WH , Billiar TR , Simmons RL , Bauer AJ . Role of inducible nitric oxide synthase in postoperative intestinal smooth muscle dysfunction in rodents . Gastroenterology . 2000;118:316–327
  67. Korolkiewicz RP , Sein-Anand J , Ruczynski J , Rekowski P , Bieniaszewski L , Chodorowski Z , et al.   The role and interactions of nitric oxide (NO), carbon monoxide (CO), and prostanoids in the pathogenesis of postoperative ileus in rats . J Gastrointest Surg . 2004;8:346–357
  68. Espat NJ , Cheng G , Kelley MC , Vogel SB , Sninsky CA , Hocking MP . Vasoactive intestinal peptide and substance P receptor antagonists improve postoperative ileus . J Surg Res . 1995;58:719–723
  69. Love JA , Go VL , Szurszewski JH . Vasoactive intestinal peptide and other peptides as neuromodulators of colonic motility in the guinea pig . Ann N Y Acad Sci . 1988;527:360–368
  70. De Winter BY , Robberecht P , Boeckxstaens GE , De Man JG , Moreels TG , Herman AG , et al.   Role of VIP1/PACAP receptors in postoperative ileus in rats . Br J Pharmacol . 1998;124:1181–1186
  71. Boeckxstaens GE , Hollmann M , Heisterkamp SH , Robberecht P , de Jonge WJ , van Den Wijngaard RM , et al.   Evidence for VIP(1)/PACAP receptors in the afferent pathway mediating surgery-induced fundic relaxation in the rat . Br J Pharmacol . 2000;131:705–710
  72. Tache Y , Martinez V , Million M , Wang L . Stress and the gastrointestinal tract III. Stress-related alterations of gut motor function: role of brain corticotropin-releasing factor receptors . Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol . 2001;280:G173–G177
  73. Turnbull AV , Rivier C . Corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) and endocrine responses to stress (CRF receptors, binding protein, and related peptides) . Proc Soc Exp Biol Med . 1997;215:1–10
  74. Tache Y , Monnikes H , Bonaz B , Rivier J . Role of CRF in stress-related alterations of gastric and colonic motor function . Ann N Y Acad Sci . 1993;29:233–243 697
  75. Tache Y , Martinez V , Million M , Rivier J . Corticotropin-releasing factor and the brain-gut motor response to stress . Can J Gastroenterol . 1999;13(Suppl A):18A–25A
  76. Giuffre KA , Udelsman R , Listwak S , Chrousos GP . Effects of immune neutralization of corticotropin-releasing hormone, adrenocorticotropin, and beta-endorphin in the surgically stressed rat . Endocrinology . 1988;122:306–310
  77. Calogero AE , Norton JA , Sheppard BC , Listwak SJ , Cromack DT , Wall R , et al.   Pulsatile activation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis during major surgery . Metabolism . 1992;41:839–845
  78. Barquist E , Zinner M , Rivier J , Tache Y . Abdominal surgery-induced delayed gastric emptying in rats (role of CRF and sensory neurons) . Am J Physiol . 1992;262(4 Pt 1):G616–G620
  79. Stephens RL , Yang H , Rivier J , Tache Y . Intracisternal injection of CRF antagonist blocks surgical stress-induced inhibition of gastric secretion in the rat . Peptides . 1988;9:1067–1070
  80. Luckey A , Wang L , Jamieson PM , Basa NR , Million M , Czimmer J , et al.   Corticotropin-releasing factor receptor 1-deficient mice do not develop postoperative gastric ileus . Gastroenterology . 2003;125:654–659
  81. Kalff JC , Schwarz NT , Walgenbach KJ , Schraut WH , Bauer AJ . Leukocytes of the intestinal muscularis (their phenotype and isolation) . J Leukoc Biol . 1998;63:683–691
  82. Schwarz NT , Kalff JC , Turler A , Engel BM , Watkins SC , Billiar TR , et al.   Prostanoid production via COX-2 as a causative mechanism of rodent postoperative ileus . Gastroenterology . 2001;121:1354–1371
  83. Kalff JC , Carlos TM , Schraut WH , Billiar TR , Simmons RL , Bauer AJ . Surgically induced leukocytic infiltrates within the rat intestinal muscularis mediate postoperative ileus . Gastroenterology . 1999;117:378–387
  84. Turler A , Moore BA , Pezzone MA , Overhaus M , Kalff JC , Bauer AJ . Colonic postoperative inflammatory ileus in the rat . Ann Surg . 2002;236:56–66
  85. Kalff JC , Buchholz BM , Eskandari MK , Hierholzer C , Schraut WH , Simmons RL , et al.   Biphasic response to gut manipulation and temporal correlation of cellular infiltrates and muscle dysfunction in rat . Surgery . 1999;126:498–509
  86. Schwarz NT , Beer-Stolz D , Simmons RL , Bauer AJ . Pathogenesis of paralytic ileus (intestinal manipulation opens a transient pathway between the intestinal lumen and the leukocytic infiltrate of the jejunal muscularis) . Ann Surg . 2002;235:31–40
  87. Kalff JC , Turler A , Schwarz NT , Schraut WH , Lee KK , Tweardy DJ , et al.   Intra-abdominal activation of a local inflammatory response within the human muscularis externa during laparotomy . Ann Surg . 2003;237:301–315
  88. Scholes GB , Eley KG , Bennett A . Effect of prostaglandins on intestinal motility . Gut . 1968;9:726
  89. Sanders KM . Endogenous prostaglandin E and contractile activity of isolated ileal smooth muscle . Am J Physiol . 1978;234:E209–E212
  90. Thor P , Konturek JW , Konturek SJ , Anderson JH . Role of prostaglandins in control of intestinal motility . Am J Physiol . 1985;248:G353–G359
  91. Tollstrom T , Hellstrom PM , Johansson C , Pernow B . Effects of prostaglandins E2 and F2 alpha on motility of small intestine in man . Dig Dis Sci . 1988;33:552–557
  92. Eberhart CE , Dubois RN . Eicosanoids and the gastrointestinal tract . Gastroenterology . 1995;109:285–301
  93. Mohajer B , Ma TY . Eicosanoids and the small intestine . Prostaglandins Other Lipid Mediat . 2000;61(3-4):125–143
  94. Hori M , Kita M , Torihashi S , Miyamoto S , Won KJ , Sato K , et al.   Upregulation of iNOS by COX-2 in muscularis resident macrophage of rat intestine stimulated with LPS . Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol . 2001;280:G930–G938
  95. De Jonge WJ , van den Wijngaard RM , The FO , ter Beek ML , Bennink RJ , Tytgat GN , et al.   Postoperative ileus is maintained by intestinal immune infiltrates that activate inhibitory neural pathways in mice . Gastroenterology . 2003;125:1137–1147
  96. Schwarz NT , Kalff JC , Turler A , Speidel N , Grandis JR , Billiar TR , et al.   Selective jejunal manipulation causes postoperative pan-enteric inflammation and dysmotility . Gastroenterology . 2004;126:159–169
  97. Resnick J , Greenwald DA , Brandt LJ . Delayed gastric emptying and postoperative ileus after nongastric abdominal surgery (part I) . Am J Gastroenterol . 1997;92:751–762
  98. Resnick J , Greenwald DA , Brandt LJ . Delayed gastric emptying and postoperative ileus after nongastric abdominal surgery (part II) . Am J Gastroenterol . 1997;92:934–940
  99. Kreiss C , Birder LA , Kiss S , VanBibber MM , Bauer AJ . COX-2 dependent inflammation increases spinal Fos expression during rodent postoperative ileus . Gut . 2003;52:527–534
  100. Wershil BK . Role of mast cells and basophils in gastrointestinal inflammation . Chem Immunol . 1995;62:187–203
  101. Wershil BK , Furuta GT , Wang ZS , Galli SJ . Mast cell-dependent neutrophil and mononuclear cell recruitment in immunoglobulin E-induced gastric reactions in mice . Gastroenterology . 1996;110:1482–1490
  102. Kurz A , Sessler DI . Opioid-induced bowel dysfunction (pathophysiology and potential new therapies) . Drugs . 2003;63:649–671
  103. Holzer P . Opioids and opioid receptors in the enteric nervous system (from a problem in opioid analgesia to a possible new prokinetic therapy in humans) . Neurosci Lett . 2004;6:192–195 361(1-3)
  104. Greenwood-Van Meerveld B , Gardner CJ , Little PJ , Hicks GA , Dehaven-Hudkins DL . Preclinical studies of opioids and opioid antagonists on gastrointestinal function . Neurogastroenterol Motil . 2004;16(Suppl 2):46–53
  105. Pasternak GW . Pharmacological mechanisms of opioid analgesics . Clin Neuropharmacol . 1993;16:1–18
  106. Austrup ML , Korean G . Analgesic agents for the postoperative period. Opioids . Surg Clin North Am . 1999;79:253–273
  107. Zuckerman LA , Ferrante FM . Nonopioid and opioid analgesics . In:  Ashburn MA ,  Rice LJ editor. The Management of Pain . 1st ed.. New York: Churchill Livingston; 1998;p. 111–140
  108. Bauer AJ , Sarr MG , Szurszewski JH . Opioids inhibit neuromuscular transmission in circular muscle of human and baboon jejunum . Gastroenterology . 1991;101:970–976
  109. Kaufman PN , Krevsky B , Malmud LS , Maurer AH , Somers MB , Siegel JA , et al.   Role of opiate receptors in the regulation of colonic transit . Gastroenterology . 1988;94:1351–1356
  110. Ogilvy AJ , Smith G . The gastrointestinal tract after anaesthesia . Eur J Anaesthesiol Suppl . 1995;10:35–42
  111. Condon RE , Cowles V , Ekbom GA , Schulte WJ , Hess G . Effects of halothane, enflurane, and nitrous oxide on colon motility . Surgery . 1987;101:81–85
  112. Schurizek BA . The effects of general anaesthesia on antroduodenal motility, gastric pH and gastric emptying in man . Dan Med Bull . 1991;38:347–365
  113. Freye E , Sundermann S , Wilder-Smith OH . No inhibition of gastro-intestinal propulsion after propofol- or propofol/ketamine-N2O/O2 anaesthesia. A comparison of gastro-caecal transit after isoflurane anaesthesia . Acta Anaesthesiol Scand . 1998;42:664–669
  114. Holte K , Sharrock NE , Kehlet H . Pathophysiology and clinical implications of perioperative fluid excess . Br J Anaesth . 2002;89:622–632
  115. Lobo DN , Bostock KA , Neal KR , Perkins AC , Rowlands BJ , Allison SP . Effect of salt and water balance on recovery of gastrointestinal function after elective colonic resection (a randomised controlled trial) . Lancet . 2002;359:1812–1818
  116. Tambyraja AL , Sengupta F , MacGregor AB , Bartolo DC , Fearon KC . Patterns and clinical outcomes associated with routine intravenous sodium and fluid administration after colorectal resection . World J Surg . 2004;28:1046–1051
  117. Brandstrup B , Tonnesen H , Beier-Holgersen R , Hjortso E , Ording H , Lindorff-Larsen K , et al.   Effects of intravenous fluid restriction on postoperative complications: comparison of two perioperative fluid regimens: a randomized assessor-blinded multicenter trial . Ann Surg . 2003;238:641–648
  118. Holte K , Klarskov B , Christensen DS , Lund C , Nielsen KG , Bie P , et al.   Liberal versus restrictive fluid administration to improve recovery after laparoscopic cholecystectomy (a randomized, double-blind study) . Ann Surg . 2004;240:892–899
  119. Yogendran S , Asokumar B , Cheng DC , Chung F . A prospective randomized double-blinded study of the effect of intravenous fluid therapy on adverse outcomes on outpatient surgery . Anesth Analg . 1995;80:682–686
  120. Bauer JJ , Gelernt IM , Salky BA , Kreel I . Is routine postoperative nasogastric decompression really necessary? . Ann Surg . 1985;201:233–236
  121. Cheadle WG , Vitale GC , Mackie CR , Cuschieri A . Prophylactic postoperative nasogastric decompression. A prospective study of its requirement and the influence of cimetidine in 200 patients . Ann Surg . 1985;202:361–366
  122. Wolff BG , Pembeton JH , van Heerden JA , Beart RW , Nivatvongs S , Devine RM , et al.   Elective colon and rectal surgery without nasogastric decompression. A prospective, randomized trial . Ann Surg . 1989;209:670–673
  123. Cunningham J , Temple WJ , Langevin JM , Kortbeek J . A prospective randomized trial of routine postoperative nasogastric decompression in patients with bowel anastomosis . Can J Surg . 1992;35:629–632
  124. Petrelli NJ , Stulc JP , Rodriguez-Bigas M , Blumenson L . Nasogastric decompression following elective colorectal surgery (a prospective randomized study) . Am Surg . 1993;59:632–635
  125. Otchy DP , Wolff BG , van Heerden JA , Ilstrup DM , Weaver AL , Winter LD . Does the avoidance of nasogastric decompression following elective abdominal colorectal surgery affect the incidence of incisional hernia? Results of a prospective, randomized trial . Dis Colon Rectum . 1995;38:604–608
  126. Pearl ML , Valea FA , Fischer M , Chalas E . A randomized controlled trial of postoperative nasogastric tube decompression in gynecologic oncology patients undergoing intra-abdominal surgery . Obstet Gynecol . 1996;88:399–402
  127. Yoo CH , Son BH , Han WK , Pae WK . Nasogastric decompression is not necessary in operations for gastric cancer (prospective randomised trial) . Eur J Surg . 2002;168:379–383
  128. Huerta S , Arteaga JR , Sawicki MP , Liu CD , Livingston EH . Assessment of routine elimination of postoperative nasogastric decompression after Roux-en-Y gastric bypass . Surgery . 2002;132:844–848
  129. Akbaba S , Kayaalp C , Savkilioglu M . Nasogastric decompression after total gastrectomy . Hepatogastroenterology . 2004;51(60):1881–1885
  130. Cheatham ML , Chapman WC , Key SP , Sawyers JL . A meta-analysis of selective versus routine nasogastric decompression after elective laparotomy . Ann Surg . 1995;221:469–476
  131. Nelson R , Edwards S , Tse B . Prophylactic nasogastric decompression after abdominal surgery . Cochrane Database Syst Rev . 2005; (1):CD004929
  132. Moss G , Friedman RC . Abdominal decompression (increased efficiency by esophageal aspiration utilizing a new nasogastric tube) . Am J Surg . 1977;133:225–228
  133. Rodriguez-Ruesga R , Meagher AP , Wolff BG . Twelve-year experience with the long intestinal tube . World J Surg . 1995;19:627–630
  134. Vaughn AM , Guzauskas AC , Metzner WR . Early postoperative ambulation . Am J Surg . 1950;80:523–530
  135. Wright HP , Osborn SB , Edmonds DG . Effect of postoperative bed rest and early ambulation on the rate of venous blood-flow . Lancet . 1951;1:22–25
  136. Palumbo LT , Paul RE , Katz IA , Mazur TT . Effects of early postoperative ambulation . Postgrad Med . 1953;13:206–209
  137. Cogswell HD , Czerny EW . Bed pedaling as an adjunct to postoperative ambulation for hastening and improving convalescence . Am Surg . 1959;25:143–145
  138. Waldhausen JH , Schirmer BD . The effect of ambulation on recovery from postoperative ileus . Ann Surg . 1990;212:671–677
  139. Zutshi M , Delaney CP , Senagore AJ , Fazio VW . Shorter hospital stay associated with fastrack postoperative care pathways and laparoscopic intestinal resection are not associated with increased physical activity . Colorectal Dis . 2004;6:477–480
  140. Rao SS , Beaty J , Chamberlain M , Lambert PG , Gisolfi C . Effects of acute graded exercise on human colonic motility . Am J Physiol . 1999;276(5 Pt 1):G1221–G1226
  141. Van Nieuwenhoven MA , Brouns F , Brummer RJ . The effect of physical exercise on parameters of gastrointestinal function . Neurogastroenterol Motil . 1999;11:431–439
  142. Soffer EE , Summers RW , Gisolfi C . Effect of exercise on intestinal motility and transit in trained athletes . Am J Physiol . 1991;260(5 Pt 1):G698–G702
  143. McMahon AJ , Russell IT , Ramsay G , Sunderland G , Baxter JN , Anderson JR , et al.   Laparoscopic and minilaparotomy cholecystectomy (a randomized trial comparing postoperative pain and pulmonary function) . Surgery . 1994;115:533–539
  144. Kozol R , Lange PM , Kosir M , Beleski K , Mason K , Tennenberg S , et al.   A prospective, randomized study of open vs laparoscopic inguinal hernia repair. An assessment of postoperative pain . Arch Surg . 1997;132:292–295
  145. Schwenk W , Bohm B , Muller JM . Postoperative pain and fatigue after laparoscopic or conventional colorectal resections. A prospective randomized trial . Surg Endosc . 1998;12:1131–1136
  146. Nguyen NT , Lee SL , Goldman C , Fleming N , Arango A , McFall R , et al.   Comparison of pulmonary function and postoperative pain after laparoscopic versus open gastric bypass (a randomized trial) . J Am Coll Surg . 2001;192:469–476
  147. Le Blanc-Louvry I , Coquerel A , Koning E , Maillot C , Ducrotte P . Operative stress response is reduced after laparoscopic compared to open cholecystectomy (the relationship with postoperative pain and ileus) . Dig Dis Sci . 2000;45:1703–1713
  148. Grande M , Tucci GF , Adorisio O , Barini A , Rulli F , Neri A , et al.   Systemic acute-phase response after laparoscopic and open cholecystectomy . Surg Endosc . 2002;16:313–316
  149. Leung KL , Lai PB , Ho RL , Meng WC , Yiu RY , Lee JF , et al.   Systemic cytokine response after laparoscopic-assisted resection of rectosigmoid carcinoma (a prospective randomized trial) . Ann Surg . 2000;231:506–511
  150. Wu FP , Sietses C , von Blomberg BM , van Leeuwen PA , Meijer S , Cuesta MA . Systemic and peritoneal inflammatory response after laparoscopic or conventional colon resection in cancer patients (a prospective, randomized trial) . Dis Colon Rectum . 2003;46:147–155
  151. Whelan RL , Franklin M , Holubar SD , Donahue J , Fowler R , Munger C , et al.   Postoperative cell mediated immune response is better preserved after laparoscopic vs open colorectal resection in humans . Surg Endosc . 2003;17:972–978
  152. Hu JK , Zhou ZG , Chen ZX , Wang LL , Yu YY , Liu J , et al.   Comparative evaluation of immune response after laparoscopical and open total mesorectal excisions with anal sphincter preservation in patients with rectal cancer . World J Gastroenterol . 2003;9:2690–2694
  153. Ordemann J , Jacobi CA , Schwenk W , Stosslein R , Muller JM . Cellular and humoral inflammatory response after laparoscopic and conventional colorectal resections . Surg Endosc . 2001;15147:600–608
  154. Schwenk W , Bohm B , Haase O , Junghans T , Muller JM . Laparoscopic versus conventional colorectal resection (a prospective randomised study of postoperative ileus and early postoperative feeding) . Langenbecks Arch Surg . 1998;383:49–55
  155. Chen HH , Wexner SD , Iroatulam AJ , Pikarsky AJ , Alabaz O , Nogueras JJ , et al.   Laparoscopic colectomy compares favorably with colectomy by laparotomy for reduction of postoperative ileus . Dis Colon Rectum . 2000;43:61–65
  156. Davies W , Kollmorgen CF , Tu QM , Donohue JH , Thompson GB , Nelson H , et al.   Laparoscopic colectomy shortens postoperative ileus in a canine model . Surgery . 1997;121:550–555
  157. Duepree HJ , Senagore AJ , Delaney CP , Brady KM , Fazio VW . Advantages of laparoscopic resection for ileocecal Crohn’s disease . Dis Colon Rectum . 2002;45:605–610
  158. Young-Fadok TM , HallLong K , McConnell EJ , Gomez Rey G , Cabanela RL . Advantages of laparoscopic resection for ileocolic Crohn’s disease. Improved outcomes and reduced costs . Surg Endosc . 2001;15:450–454
  159. Basse L , Madsen JL , Billesbolle P , Bardram L , Kehlet H . Gastrointestinal transit after laparoscopic versus open colonic resection . Surg Endosc . 2003;17:1919–1922
  160. Kasparek MS , Muller MH , Glatzle J , Manncke K , Becker HD , Zittel TT , et al.   Postoperative colonic motility in patients following laparoscopic-assisted and open sigmoid colectomy . J Gastrointest Surg . 2003;7:1073–1081
  161. Chapman AE , Levitt MD , Hewett P , Woods R , Sheiner H , Maddern GJ . Laparoscopic-assisted resection of colorectal malignancies (a systematic review) . Ann Surg . 2001;234:590–606
  162. Abraham NS , Young JM , Solomon MJ . Meta-analysis of short-term outcomes after laparoscopic resection for colorectal cancer . Br J Surg . 2004;91:1111–1124
  163. Moss G . Maintenance of gastrointestinal function after bowel surgery and immediate enteral full nutrition. II. Clinical experience, with objective demonstration of intestinal absorption and motility . JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr . 1981;5:215–220
  164. Greenstein A , Rogers P , Moss G . Doubled fourth-day colorectal anastomotic strength with complete retention of intestinal mature wound collagen and accelerated deposition following immediate full enteral nutrition . Surg Forum . 1978;29:78–81
  165. Moss G , Greenstein A , Levy S , Bierenbaum A . Maintenance of GI function after bowel surgery and immediate enteral full nutrition. I. Doubling of canine colorectal anastomotic bursting pressure and intestinal wound mature collagen content . JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr . 1980;4:535–538
  166. Deitch EA , Ma WJ , Ma L , Berg RD , Specian RD . Protein malnutrition predisposes to inflammatory-induced gut-origin septic states . Ann Surg . 1990;211:560–567
  167. Groos S , Hunefeld G , Luciano L . Parenteral versus enteral nutrition (morphological changes in human adult intestinal mucosa) . J Submicrosc Cytol Pathol . 1996;28:61–74
  168. Jiang XH , Li N , Li JS . Intestinal permeability in patients after surgical trauma and effect of enteral nutrition versus parenteral nutrition . World J Gastroenterol . 2003;9:1878–1880
  169. Braga M , Gianotti L , Gentilini O , Parisi V , Salis C , Di Carlo V . Early postoperative enteral nutrition improves gut oxygenation and reduces costs compared with total parenteral nutrition . Crit Care Med . 2001;29:242–248
  170. Moore FA , Feliciano DV , Andrassy RJ , McArdle AH , Booth FV , Morgenstein-Wagner TB , et al.   Early enteral feeding, compared with parenteral, reduces postoperative septic complications. The results of a meta-analysis . Ann Surg . 1992;216:172–183
  171. Carr CS , Ling KD , Boulos P , Singer M . Randomised trial of safety and efficacy of immediate postoperative enteral feeding in patients undergoing gastrointestinal resection . BMJ . 1996;312:869–871
  172. Beier-Holgersen R , Boesby S . Influence of postoperative enteral nutrition on postsurgical infections . Gut . 1996;39:833–835
  173. Braga M , Gianotti L , Gentilini O , Liotta S , Di Carlo V . Feeding the gut early after digestive surgery (results of a nine-year experience) . Clin Nutr . 2002;21:59–65
  174. Zaloga GP , Bortenschlager L , Black KW , Prielipp R . Immediate postoperative enteral feeding decreases weight loss and improves wound healing after abdominal surgery in rats . Crit Care Med . 1992;20:115–118
  175. Binderow SR , Cohen SM , Wexner SD , Nogueras JJ . Must early postoperative oral intake be limited to laparoscopy? . Dis Colon Rectum . 1994;37:584–589
  176. Reissman P , Teoh TA , Cohen SM , Weiss EG , Nogueras JJ , Wexner SD . Is early oral feeding safe after elective colorectal surgery? A prospective randomized trial . Ann Surg . 1995;222:73–77
  177. Stewart BT , Woods RJ , Collopy BT , Fink RJ , Mackay JR , Keck JO . Early feeding after elective open colorectal resections (a prospective randomized trial) . Aust N Z J Surg . 1998;68:125–128
  178. Behrns KE , Kircher AP , Galanko JA , Brownstein MR , Koruda MJ . Prospective randomized trial of early initiation and hospital discharge on a liquid diet following elective intestinal surgery . J Gastrointest Surg . 2000;4:217–221
  179. Watters JM , Kirkpatrick SM , Norris SB , Shamji FM , Wells GA . Immediate postoperative enteral feeding results in impaired respiratory mechanics and decreased mobility . Ann Surg . 1997;226:369–377
  180. Hayashi JT , Wolfe BM , Calvert CC . Limited efficacy of early postoperative jejunal feeding . Am J Surg . 1985;150:52–57
  181. Miedema BW , Schwab J , Burgess SV , Simmons JW , Metzler MH . Jejunal manometry predicts tube feeding intolerance in the postoperative period . Dig Dis Sci . 2001;46:2250–2255
  182. Lewis SJ , Egger M , Sylvester PA , Thomas S . Early enteral feeding versus “nil by mouth” after gastrointestinal surgery (systematic review and meta-analysis of controlled trials) . BMJ . 2001;6:773–776 323
  183. Stern RM , Crawford HE , Stewart WR , Vasey MW , Koch KL . Sham feeding. Cephalic-vagal influences on gastric myoelectric activity . Dig Dis Sci . 1989;34:521–527
  184. Soffer EE , Adrian TE . Effect of meal composition and sham feeding on duodenojejunal motility in humans . Dig Dis Sci . 1992;37:1009–1014
  185. Defilippi C , Valenzuela JE . Sham feeding disrupts the interdigestive motility complex in man . Scand J Gastroenterol . 1981;16:977–979
  186. Pouderoux P , Veyrac M , Michel H . Sham feeding disrupts phase III of the duodenal migrating motor complex in humans . Neurogastroenterol Motil . 1995;7:139–144
  187. Jepsen JM , Skoubo-Kristensen E , Elsborg L . Rectosigmoid motility response to sham feeding in irritable bowel syndrome. Evidence of a cephalic phase . Scand J Gastroenterol . 1989;24:53–56
  188. Asao T , Kuwano H , Nakamura J , Morinaga N , Hirayama I , Ide M . Gum chewing enhances early recovery from postoperative ileus after laparoscopic colectomy . J Am Coll Surg . 2002;195:30–32
  189. Ochsner A , Gage IM , Culting RA . Treatment of ileus by splanchnic anesthesia . JAMA . 1928;90:1847–1853
  190. Steinbrook RA . Epidural anesthesia and gastrointestinal motility . Anesth Analg . 1998;86:837–844
  191. Kaneko M , Saito Y , Kirihara Y , Collins JG , Kosaka Y . Synergistic antinociceptive interaction after epidural coadministration of morphine and lidocaine in rats . Anesthesiology . 1994;80:137–150
  192. Jorgensen H , Wetterslev J , Moiniche S , Dahl JB . Epidural local anaesthetics versus opioid-based analgesic regimens on postoperative gastrointestinal paralysis, PONV and pain after abdominal surgery . Cochrane Database Syst Rev . 2000; (4):CD001893
  193. Hjortso NC , Neumann P , Frosig F , Andersen T , Lindhard A , Rogon E , et al.   A controlled study on the effect of epidural analgesia with local anaesthetics and morphine on morbidity after abdominal surgery . Acta Anaesthesiol Scand . 1985;29:790–796
  194. Wallin G , Cassuto J , Hogstrom S , Rimback G , Faxen A , Tollesson PO . Failure of epidural anesthesia to prevent postoperative paralytic ileus . Anesthesiology . 1986;65:292–297
  195. Scheinin B , Asantila R , Orko R . The effect of bupivacaine and morphine on pain and bowel function after colonic surgery . Acta Anaesthesiol Scand . 1987;31:161–164
  196. Ahn H , Bronge A , Johansson K , Ygge H , Lindhagen J . Effect of continuous postoperative epidural analgesia on intestinal motility . Br J Surg . 1988;75:1176–1178
  197. Bredtmann RD , Herden HN , Teichmann W , Moecke HP , Kniesel B , Baetgen R , et al.   Epidural analgesia in colonic surgery (results of a randomized prospective study) . Br J Surg . 1990;77:638–642
  198. Jayr C , Thomas H , Rey A , Farhat F , Lasser P , Bourgain JL . Postoperative pulmonary complications. Epidural analgesia using bupivacaine and opioids versus parenteral opioids . Anesthesiology . 1993;78:666–676
  199. Morimoto H , Cullen JJ , Messick JM , Kelly KA . Epidural analgesia shortens postoperative ileus after ileal pouch-anal canal anastomosis . Am J Surg . 1995;169:79–82
  200. Liu SS , Carpenter RL , Mackey DC , Thirlby RC , Rupp SM , Shine TS , et al.   Effects of perioperative analgesic technique on rate of recovery after colon surgery . Anesthesiology . 1995;83:757–765
  201. Scott AM , Starling JR , Ruscher AE , DeLessio ST , Harms BA . Thoracic versus lumbar epidural anesthesia’s effect on pain control and ileus resolution after restorative proctocolectomy . Surgery . 1996;120:688–695
  202. Bradshaw BG , Liu SS , Thirlby RC . Standardized perioperative care protocols and reduced length of stay after colon surgery . J Am Coll Surg . 1998;186:501–506
  203. Welch JP , Cohen JL , Vignati PV , Allen LW , Morrow JS , Carter JJ . Pain control following elective gastrointestinal surgery (is epidural anesthesia warranted?) . Conn Med . 1998;62:461–464
  204. Neudecker J , Schwenk W , Junghans T , Pietsch S , Bohm B , Muller JM . Randomized controlled trial to examine the influence of thoracic epidural analgesia on postoperative ileus after laparoscopic sigmoid resection . Br J Surg . 1999;86:1292–1295
  205. Carli F , Trudel JL , Belliveau P . The effect of intraoperative thoracic epidural anesthesia and postoperative analgesia on bowel function after colorectal surgery (a prospective, randomized trial) . Dis Colon Rectum . 2001;44:1083–1089
  206. Carli F , Mayo N , Klubien K , Schricker T , Trudel J , Belliveau P . Epidural analgesia enhances functional exercise capacity and health-related quality of life after colonic surgery (results of a randomized trial) . Anesthesiology . 2002;97:540–549
  207. Steinberg RB , Liu SS , Wu CL , Mackey DC , Grass JA , Ahlen K , et al.   Comparison of ropivacaine-fentanyl patient-controlled epidural analgesia with morphine intravenous patient-controlled analgesia for perioperative analgesia and recovery after open colon surgery . J Clin Anesth . 2002;14:571–577
  208. Johansson K , Ahn H , Lindhagen J , Tryselius U . Effect of epidural anaesthesia on intestinal blood flow . Br J Surg . 1988;75:73–76
  209. Sala C , Garcia-Granero E , Molina MJ , Garcia JV , Lledo S . Effect of epidural anesthesia on colorectal anastomosis (a tonometric assessment) . Dis Colon Rectum . 1997;40:958–961
  210. Gould TH , Grace K , Thorne G , Thomas M . Effect of thoracic epidural anaesthesia on colonic blood flow . Br J Anaesth . 2002;89:446–451
  211. Holte K , Kehlet H . Epidural analgesia and risk of anastomotic leakage . Reg Anesth Pain Med . 2001;26:111–117
  212. Schnitzler M , Kilbride MJ , Senagore A . Effect of epidural analgesia on colorectal anastomotic healing and colonic motility . Reg Anesth . 1992;17:143–147
  213. Block BM , Liu SS , Rowlingson AJ , Cowan AR , Cowan JA , Wu CL . Efficacy of postoperative epidural analgesia (a meta-analysis) . JAMA . 2003;290(18):2455–2463 (18):2455-63.
  214. Myrhoj T , Olsen O , Wengel B . Neostigmine in postoperative intestinal paralysis. A double-blind, clinical, controlled trial . Dis Colon Rectum . 1988;31:378–379
  215. Ponec RJ , Saunders MD , Kimmey MB . Neostigmine for the treatment of acute colonic pseudo-obstruction . N Engl J Med . 1999;341:137–141
  216. Althausen PL , Gupta MC , Benson DR , Jones DA . The use of neostigmine to treat postoperative ileus in orthopedic spinal patients . J Spinal Disord . 2001;14:541–545
  217. Kreis ME , Kasparek M , Zittel TT , Becker HD , Jehle EC . Neostigmine increases postoperative colonic motility in patients undergoing colorectal surgery . Surgery . 2001;130:449–456
  218. Davidson ED , Hersh T , Brinner RA , Barnett SM , Boyle LP . The effects of metoclopramide on postoperative ileus. A randomized double-blind study . Ann Surg . 1979;190:27–30
  219. Jepsen S , Klaerke A , Nielsen PH , Simonsen O . Negative effect of metoclopramide in postoperative adynamic ileus. A prospective, randomized, double blind study . Br J Surg . 1986;73:290–291
  220. Tollesson PO , Cassuto J , Faxen A , Rimback G , Mattsson E , Rosen S . Lack of effect of metoclopramide on colonic motility after cholecystectomy . Eur J Surg . 1991;157:355–358
  221. Cheape JD , Wexner SD , James K , Jagelman DG . Does metoclopramide reduce the length of ileus after colorectal surgery? A prospective randomized trial . Dis Colon Rectum . 1991;34:437–441
  222. Seta ML , Kale-Pradhan PB . Efficacy of metoclopramide in postoperative ileus after exploratory laparotomy . Pharmacotherapy . 2001;21:1181–1186
  223. Boghaert A , Haesaert G , Mourisse P , Verlinden M . Placebo-controlled trial of cisapride in postoperative ileus . Acta Anaesthesiol Belg . 1987;38:195–199
  224. von Ritter C , Hunter S , Hinder RA . Cisapride does not reduce postoperative paralytic ileus . S Afr J Surg . 1987;25:19–21
  225. Tollesson PO , Cassuto J , Rimback G , Faxen A , Bergman L , Mattsson E . Treatment of postoperative paralytic ileus with cisapride . Scand J Gastroenterol . 1991;26:477–482
  226. Hallerback B , Bergman B , Bong H , Ekstrom P , Glise H , Lundgren K , et al.   Cisapride in the treatment of post-operative ileus . Aliment Pharmacol Ther . 1991;5:503–511
  227. Lander A , Redkar R , Nicholls G , Lawson A , Choudhury SR , Corkery JJ , et al.   Cisapride reduces neonatal postoperative ileus (randomised placebo controlled trial) . Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed . 1997;77:F119–F122
  228. Roberts JP , Benson MJ , Rogers J , Deeks JJ , Wingate DL , Williams NS . Effect of cisapride on distal colonic motility in the early postoperative period following left colonic anastomosis . Dis Colon Rectum . 1995;38:139–145
  229. Brown TA , McDonald J , Williard W . A prospective, randomized, double-blinded, placebo-controlled trial of cisapride after colorectal surgery . Am J Surg . 1999;177:399–401
  230. Bonacini M , Quiason S , Reynolds M , Gaddis M , Pemberton B , Smith O . Effect of intravenous erythromycin on postoperative ileus . Am J Gastroenterol . 1993;88:208–211
  231. Smith AJ , Nissan A , Lanouette NM , Shi W , Guillem JG , Wong WD , et al.   Prokinetic effect of erythromycin after colorectal surgery (randomized, placebo-controlled, double-blind study) . Dis Colon Rectum . 2000;43:333–337
  232. Vincent ME , Wetzner SM , Robbins AH . Pharmacology, clinical uses, and adverse effects of ceruletide, a cholecystokinetic agent . Pharmacotherapy . 1982;2:223–234
  233. Madsen PV , Lykkegaard-Nielsen M , Nielsen OV . Ceruletide reduces postoperative intestinal paralysis. A double-blind placebo-controlled trial . Dis Colon Rectum . 1983;26:159–160
  234. Sadek SA , Cranford C , Eriksen C , Walker M , Campbell C , Baker PR , et al.   Pharmacological manipulation of adynamic ileus (controlled randomized double-blind study of ceruletide on intestinal motor activity after elective abdominal surgery) . Aliment Pharmacol Ther . 1988;2:47–54
  235. Neri M , Cuccurullo F , Marzio L . Effect of somatostatin on gallbladder volume and small intestinal motor activity in humans . Gastroenterology . 1990;98:316–321
  236. Cullen JJ , Eagon JC , Dozois EJ , Kelly KA . Treatment of acute postoperative ileus with octreotide . Am J Surg . 1993;165:113–119
  237. Fanning J , Yu-Brekke S . Prospective trial of aggressive postoperative bowel stimulation following radical hysterectomy . Gynecol Oncol . 1999;73:412–414
  238. Brown AK , Christo PJ , Wu CL . Strategies for postoperative pain management . Best Pract Res Clin Anaesthesiol . 2004;18:703–717
  239. Kelley MC , Hocking MP , Marchand SD , Sninsky CA . Ketorolac prevents postoperative small intestinal ileus in rats . Am J Surg . 1993;165:107–111
  240. Cheng G , Cassissi C , Drexler PG , Vogel SB , Sninsky CA , Hocking MP . Salsalate, morphine, and postoperative ileus . Am J Surg . 1996;171:85–88
  241. Ferraz AA , Cowles VE , Condon RE , Carilli S , Ezberci F , Frantzides CT , et al.   Nonopioid analgesics shorten the duration of postoperative ileus . Am Surg . 1995;61:1079–1083
  242. Shafiq N , Malhotra S , Pandhi P . Effect of cyclooxygenase inhibitors in postoperative ileus (an experimental study) . Methods Find Exp Clin Pharmacol . 2002;24:275–278
  243. Josephs MD , Cheng G , Ksontini R , Moldawer LL , Hocking MP . Products of cyclooxygenase-2 catalysis regulate postoperative bowel motility . J Surg Res . 1999;86:50–54
  244. Korolkiewicz RP , Ujda M , Dabkowski J , Ruczynski J , Rekowski P , Petrusewicz J . Differential salutary effects of nonselective and selective COX-2 inhibitors in postoperative ileus in rats . J Surg Res . 2003;109:161–169
  245. Bouras EP , Burton DD , Camilleri M , Stephens DA , Thomforde GM . Effect of cyclooxygenase-2 inhibitors on gastric emptying and small intestinal transit in humans . Neurogastroenterol Motil . 2004;16:729–735
  246. Zimmerman DM , Gidda JS , Cantrell BE , Schoepp DD , Johnson BG , Leander JD . Discovery of a potent, peripherally selective trans-3,4-dimethyl-4-(3-hydroxyphenyl)piperidine opioid antagonist for the treatment of gastrointestinal motility disorders . J Med Chem . 1994;22:2262–2265 37
  247. Taguchi A , Sharma N , Saleem RM , Sessler DI , Carpenter RL , Seyedsadr M , et al.   Selective postoperative inhibition of gastrointestinal opioid receptors . N Engl J Med . 2001;345:935–940
  248. Wolff BG , Michelassi F , Gerkin TM , Techner L , Gabriel K , Du W , et al.   Alvimopan, a novel, peripherally acting mu opioid antagonist (results of a multicenter, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, phase III trial of major abdominal surgery and postoperative ileus) . Ann Surg . 2004;240:728–734
  249. Yuan CS , Foss JF , O’Connor M , Toledano A , Roizen MF , Moss J . Methylnaltrexone prevents morphine-induced delay in oral-cecal transit time without affecting analgesia (a double-blind randomized placebo-controlled trial) . Clin Pharmacol Ther . 1996;59:469–475
  250. Yuan CS , Wei G , Foss JF , O’Connor M , Karrison T , Osinski J . Effects of subcutaneous methylnaltrexone on morphine-induced peripherally mediated side effects (a double-blind randomized placebo-controlled trial) . J Pharmacol Exp Ther . 2002;300:118–123
  251. Yuan CS . Clinical status of methylnaltrexone, a new agent to prevent and manage opioid-induced side effects . J Support Oncol . 2004;2:111–117
  252. Furuta Y , Takeda M , Nakayama Y , Ito M , Suzuki Y . Effects of SK-896, a new human motilin analogue ([Leu13]motilin-Hse), on postoperative ileus in dogs after laparotomy . Biol Pharm Bull . 2002;25:1063–1071
  253. De Villiers DR , Saltiel I , Nonoyama A , Kantrowitz A . Control of postoperative adynamic bowel in dogs by electric stimulation . Trans Am Soc Artif Intern Organs . 1963;9:351–357
  254. Avakian AV , Manukian RM . Electric stimulation of gastric and intestinal peristalsis in postoperative paresis . Khirurgiia (Mosk) . 1976;5:78–80
  255. Theron EJ , Vermeulen AM . The utilization of transcutaneous electric nerve stimulation in postoperative ileus . S Afr Med J . 1983;18:971–972 63
  256. Barker P , Allcutt D , McCollum CN . Pulsed electromagnetic energy fails to prevent postoperative ileus . J R Coll Surg Edinb . 1984;29:147–150
  257. Tusek DL , Church JM , Strong SA , Grass JA , Fazio VW . Guided imagery (a significant advance in the care of patients undergoing elective colorectal surgery) . Dis Colon Rectum . 1997;40:172–178
  258. Disbrow EA , Bennett HL , Owings JT . Effect of preoperative suggestion on postoperative gastrointestinal motility . West J Med . 1993;158:488–492
  259. Le Blanc-Louvry I , Costaglioli B , Boulon C , Leroi AM , Ducrotte P . Does mechanical massage of the abdominal wall after colectomy reduce postoperative pain and shorten the duration of ileus? Results of a randomized study . J Gastrointest Surg . 2002;6:43–49
  260. Wan Q . Auricular-plaster therapy plus acupuncture at zusanli for postoperative recovery of intestinal function . J Tradit Chin Med . 2000;20:134–135
  261. Bardram L , Funch-Jensen P , Jensen P , Crawford ME , Kehlet H . Recovery after laparoscopic colonic surgery with epidural analgesia, and early oral nutrition and mobilisation . Lancet . 1995;345:763–764
  262. Kehlet H , Mogensen T . Hospital stay of 2 days after open sigmoidectomy with a multimodal rehabilitation programme . Br J Surg . 1999;86:227–230
  263. Basse L , Billesbolle P , Kehlet H . Early recovery after abdominal rectopexy with multimodal rehabilitation . Dis Colon Rectum . 2002;45:195–199
  264. Basse L , Jacobsen DH , Billesbolle P , Kehlet H . Colostomy closure after Hartmann’s procedure with fast-track rehabilitation . Dis Colon Rectum . 2002;45:1661–1664
  265. Firoozfard B , Christensen T , Kristensen JK , Mogensen S , Kehlet H . Fast-track open transperitoneal nephrectomy . Scand J Urol Nephrol . 2003;37:305–308
  266. Rasmussen S , Kristensen BB , Foldager S , Myhrmann L , Kehlet H . Accelerated recovery program after hip fracture surgery . Ugeskr Laeger . 2002;30:29–33 165
  267. Ottesen M , Sorensen M , Kehlet H , Ottesen B . Short convalescence after vaginal prolapse surgery . Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand . 2003;82:359–366
  268. Delaney CP , Fazio VW , Senagore AJ , Robinson B , Halverson AL , Remzi FH . “Fast track ” postoperative management protocol for patients with high co-morbidity undergoing complex abdominal and pelvic colorectal surgery . Br J Surg . 2001;88:1533–1538
  269. Delaney CP , Zutshi M , Senagore AJ , Remzi FH , Hammel J , Fazio VW . Prospective, randomized, controlled trial between a pathway of controlled rehabilitation with early ambulation and diet and traditional postoperative care after laparotomy and intestinal resection . Dis Colon Rectum . 2003;46:851–859

PII: S0011-3840(05)00138-3

doi: 10.1067/j.cpsurg.2005.10.004

Current Problems in Surgery
Volume 43, Issue 1 , Pages 12-65 , January 2006