Current Problems in Surgery
Volume 43, Issue 11 , Pages 781-835 , November 2006

The Management of Head and Neck Melanoma

References 

  1. Rigel DS. The effect of sunscreen on melanoma risk. Dermatol Clin. 2002;20:601–606
  2. Jemal A, Murray T, Ward E, Samuels A, Tiwari RC, Ghafoor A, et al. Cancer statistics, 2005. CA Cancer J Clin. 2005;55:10–30
  3. Surveillance, Epidemiology and End Results. 2005. http://seer.cancer.gov Accessed December 13, 2005.
  4. Beddingfield FC. The melanoma epidemic: Res Ipsa Loquitur. The Oncologist. 2003;8:459–465
  5. Rigel DS, Carucci JA. Malignant melanoma: prevention, early detection, and treatment in the 21st century. CA Cancer J Clin. 2000;50:215–236
  6. Fisher SR, O’Brien CJ. Head and neck melanoma. In:  Balch CM,  Houghton AN,  Sober AJ,  Soong SJ editor. Cutaneous Melanoma. St. Louis, MO: Quality Medical Publishing; 2003;
  7. Fisher SR. Elective, therapeutic, and delayed lymph node dissection for malignant melanoma of the head and neck: analysis of 1444 patients from 1970 to 1998. Laryngoscope. 2002;112:99–110
  8. O’Brien CJ, Coates AS, Petersen-Schaefer K, Shannon K, Thompson JF, Milton GW, et al. Experience with 998 cutaneous melanomas of the head and neck over 30 years. Am J Surg. 1991;162:310–314
  9. Peralta EA, Yarington T, Glenn MG. Malignant melanoma of the head and neck: effect of treatment on survival. Laryngoscope. 1998;108:220–223
  10. Fisher SR, Reintgen DS, Seigler HF. Juvenile malignant melanoma of the head and neck. Laryngoscope. 1988;98:184–189
  11. Pacella SJ, Lowe L, Bradford C, Marcus BC, Johnson T, Rees R. The utility of sentinel lymph node biopsy in head and neck melanoma in the pediatric population. Plast Reconstr Surg. 2003;112:1257–1265
  12. Kobayashi N, Muramatsu T, Yamashina Y, Shirai T, Ohnishi T, Mori T. Melanin reduces ultraviolet-induced DNA damage and killing rate in cultured human melanoma cells. J Invest Dermatol. 1993;101:685–689
  13. Pathak MA, Stratton K. Free radicals in human skin before and after exposure to light. Arch Biochem Biophys. 1968;123:468–476
  14. Riley PA. Melanin. Int J Biochem Cell Biol. 1997;29:1235–1239
  15. Gilchrest BA, Eller MS, Gellar AC, Yaar M. The pathogenesis of melanoma induced by ultraviolet radiation. N Engl J Med. 1999;340:1341–1348
  16. Holman CD, Armstrong BK, Heenan PJ. Etiology of common acquired melanocytic nevi: constitutional variables, sun exposure, and diet. J Natl Cancer Inst. 1986;77:329–335
  17. Nelemans PJ, Groenendal H, Kiemeney LA, Rampen FH, Ruiter DJ, Verbeek AL. Effect of intermittent exposure to sunlight on melanoma risk among indoor workers and sun-sensitive individuals. Environ Health Perspect. 1993;101:252–255
  18. Bentham G, Aase A. Incidence of malignant melanoma of the skin in Norway, 1955-1989: associations with solar ultraviolet radiation, income and holidays abroad. Int J Epidemiol. 1996;25:1132–1138
  19. Bayerl C, Taake S, Moll I, Jung EG. Characterization of sunburn cells after exposure to ultraviolet light. Photodermatol Photoimmunol Photomed. 1995;11:149–154
  20. Gilcrest BA, Treloar V, Grass AM, Yaar M, Szabo G, Flynn E. J Invest Dermatol. 1986;87:102–107
  21. Fitzpatrick TB, Ortonne JP. Normal skin color and general considerations of pigmentary disorders. In:  Freedberg IM,  Eisen AZ,  Wolff K,  Austen KF,  Goldsmith LA,  Katz AI editor. Fitzpatrick’s Dermatology in General Medicine. New York: McGraw Hill Medical Publishing; 2003;
  22. Yaar M, Gilcrest BA. Ageing and photoageing of keratinocytes and melanocytes. Clin Exp Dermatol. 2001;26:583–591
  23. Tsao H, Sober AJ. Atypical melanocytic nevi. In:  Freedberg IM,  Eisen AZ,  Wolff K,  Austen KF,  Goldsmith LA,  Katz AI editor. Fitzpatrick’s Dermatology in General Medicine. New York: McGraw Hill Medical Publishing; 2003;
  24. Berwick M, Weinstock MA. Epidemiology: current trends. In:  Balch CM,  Houghton AN,  Sober AJ,  Soong SJ editor. Cutaneous Melanoma. St. Louis, MO: Quality Medical Publishing; 2003;
  25. Kennedy C, Bajdik CD, Willemze R, et al. The influence of painful sunburns and lifetime sun exposure on the risk of actinic keratoses, seborrheic warts, melanocytic nevi, atypical nevi, and skin cancer. J Invest Dermatol. 2003;1087–1093
  26. Rigel DS. Identification of those at highest risk for development of malignant melanoma. Adv Dermatol. 1995;10:151–170
  27. Johnson TM, Hamilton T, Lowe L. Multiple primary melanomas. J Am Acad Dermatol. 1998;39:422–427
  28. Schmalbach CE, Johnson TM, Bradford CR. The management of head and neck melanoma. In:  Cummings CW,  Flint PW,  Harker LA,  Haughey BH,  Richardson MA,  Robbins KT, et al. editor. Cummings Otolaryngology Head & Neck Surgery. Philadelphia: Elsevier Mosby; 2005;
  29. Kraehn GM, Schartl M, Peter RU. Human malignant melanoma: a genetic disease?. Cancer. 1995;75:1228–1237
  30. Kamb A, Gruis NA, Weaver-Feldhaus J, Liu Q, Harshman K, Tavtigian SV, et al. A cell cycle regulator potentially involved in genesis of many tumor types. Science. 1994;264:436–440
  31. Aitken J, Welch J, Duffy D, Milligan A, Green A, Martin N, et al. CDKN2A variants in a population-based sample of Queensland families with melanoma. J Natl Cancer Inst. 1999;91:446–452
  32. Piepkorn K. Melanoma genetics: and update with focus on the CDKN2A(p16)/ARF tumor suppressors. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2000;42:705–722
  33. Clark WH, Reimer RR, Greene MH, Ainsworth AM, Mastrangelo MJ. Origin of familial malignant melanoma from heritable melanocytic lesions: the B-K mole syndrome. Arch Dermatol. 1978;114:732–738
  34. Lynch HT, Frichot BC, Lynch JF. Familial atypical multiple mole-melanoma syndrome. J Med Genet. 1978;15:352–356
  35. Greene MH, Goldin LR, Clark WH, Lovien E, Kraemer KH, Tucker MA, et al. Familial cutaneous malignant melanoma: autosomal dominant trait possibly lined to the Rh locus. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 1983;80:6071–6075
  36. Marghoob AA, Kopf AW, Rigel DS, Bart RS, Friedman RS, Yadav S, et al. Risk of cutaneous malignant melanoma in patients with “classic” atypical mole syndrome (A case-control study). Arch Dermatol. 1994;130:993–998
  37. Marghoob AA, Schoenbach SP, Kopf AW, Orlow SJ, Nossa R, Bart RS. Large congenital melanocytic nevi and the risk of developing malignant melanoma: a prospective study and review of the world literature. Arch Dermatol. 1997;132:170–175
  38. Greene MH, Clark WH, Tucker MA, Mraiemer KH, Elder DE, Fraser MC. High risk of malignant melanoma in melanoma-prone families with dysplastic nevi. Ann Int Med. 1985;102:458–465
  39. Kraemer KH, Levy DD, Parris CN, Gozukara EM, Moriwaki S, Adelberg S, et al. Xeroderma pigmentosum and related disorders: examining the linkage between defective DNA repair and cancer. J Invest Dermatol. 1994;103:96S–101S
  40. Cleaver JE. Defective repair replication of DNA in xeroderma pigmentosum. Nature. 1968;218:652–656
  41. Ceballos PI, Ruiz-Maldonado R, Milun MC. Melanoma in children. N Engl J Med. 1995;332:656–662
  42. Greene MH, Young TI, Clark WH. Malignant melanoma in renal-transplant recipients. Lancet. 1981;1:1196–1199
  43. Reynolds P, Suanders LD, Layefsky ME, Lemp GF. The spectrum of acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS)-associated malignancies in San Francisco, 1980-1987. Am J Epidemiol. 1993;137:19–30
  44. Aboulafia DM. Malignant melanoma in an HIV-infected man: a case report and literature review. Cancer Invest. 1998;16:217–224
  45. McGregor JM, Newell M, Ross J, Krkam N, McGibbon DH, Barley C. Cutaneous malignant melanoma and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection: a report of three cases. Br J Dermatol. 1992;126:516–519
  46. Smith CH, McGregor JM, Barker JN, Morris RW, Rigdon SP, MacDonald DM. Excess melanocytic nevi in children with renal allografts. J Am Acad Dermatol. 1993;28:51–55
  47. Baird EA, McHenry PM, Mackie RM. Effect of maintenance chemotherapy in childhood on numbers of melanocytic naevi. BMJ. 1992;305:799–801
  48. Naldi L, Adamoli L, Fraschini D, Corbelta A, Imberti L, Reseghett A, et al. Number and distribution of melanocytic nevi in individuals with a history of childhood leukemia. Cancer. 1996;77:1402–1408
  49. Rhodes AR, Albert LS, Weinstock MA. Congenital nevomelanocytic nevi: proportionate area expansion during infancy and early childhood. J Am Acad Dermatol. 1996;34:51–62
  50. Marghoob AA. Congenital melanocytic nevi: evaluation and management. Dermatol Clin. 2002;20:607–616
  51. Consensus Development Panel. Precursors to malignant melanoma. JAMA. 1984;251:1864–1894
  52. Bittencourt FV, Marghoob AA, Kopf AW, Koenig KL, Bart RS. Large congenital melanocytic nevi and the risk of developing malignant melanoma and neurocutaneous melanocytosis. Pediatrics. 2000;106:736–741
  53. Anderson KW, Baker SR, Lowe L, Su L, Johnson TM. Treatment of head and neck melanoma, lentigo maligna subtype: a practical surgical technique. Arch Facial Plast Surg. 2001;3:202–206
  54. Cohen LM. Lentigo maligna and lentigo maligna melanoma. J Dermatol. 1995;33:913
  55. Conley J, Lattes R, Orr W. Desmoplastic malignant melanoma (a rare variant of spindle cell melanoma). Cancer. 1971;28:914–936
  56. Reed JG, Leonard DD. Neurotropic melanoma: a variant of desmoplastic melanoma. Am J Surg Pathol. 1979;3:310–311
  57. Carlson JA, Dickersin GR, Sober AJ, Barnhill RL. Desmoplastic neurotropic melanoma, a clinicopathologic analysis of 28 cases. Cancer. 1995;75:478–494
  58. Quinn MJ, Crotty KA, Thompson JG, Coates AS, O’Brien CJ, McCarthy WH. Desmoplastic and desmoplastic neurotropic melanoma, experience with 280 patients. Cancer. 1998;83:1128–1135
  59. Fullen DR, Lowe L, Wang TS, Schwartz JL, Cimmino VM, Sondak VK, et al. Desmoplastic and neurotropic melanoma: analysis of 33 patients with lymphatic mapping and sentinel lymph node biopsy. Cancer. 2003;100:598–604
  60. Chang AE, Karnell LH, Menck HR. The national cancer database report on cutaneous and noncutaneous melanoma: a summary of 84,836 cases from the past decade. Cancer. 1998;83:1664–1678
  61. Chang P, Knapper WH. Metastatic melanoma of unknown primary. Cancer. 1982;49:1106–1111
  62. Norman J, Cruse CW, Wells KE, Saba HI, Reintgen DS. Metastatic melanoma with an unknown primary. Ann Plast Surg. 1992;28:81–84
  63. Nasri S, Namazie A, Dulguerov P, Mickel R. Malignant melanoma of cervical and parotid lymph nodes with an unknown primary site. Laryngoscope. 1994;104:1194–1198
  64. Santini H, Byers RM, Wolf PF. Melanoma metastatic to cervical and parotid nodes from an unknown primary site. Am J Surg. 1985;150:510–512
  65. Jonk A, Kroon BBR, R°mke P, Maooi WJ, Hart AA, van Dongen JA. Lymph node metastasis from melanoma with an unknown primary site. Br J Surg. 1990;77:665–668
  66. Bulkey GB, Cohen MH, Banks PM, Char DH, Ketcham AS. Long-term spontaneous regression of malignant melanoma with visceral metastasis, report of a case with immunologic profile. Cancer. 1975;36:485–494
  67. Ross MI, Stern SJ. Mucosal melanomas. In:  Balch CM,  Houghton AN,  Sober AJ,  Soong SJ editor. Cutaneous Melanoma. St. Louis, MO: Quality Medical Publishing; 2003;
  68. Berthelsen A, Andersen AP, Jensen TS, Hansen HS. Melanomas of the mucosa in the oral cavity and the upper respiratory passages. Cancer. 1984;54:907–912
  69. Hoyt DJ, Jordan T, Fisher SR. Mucosal melanoma of the head and neck. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 1989;115:1096–1099
  70. Manolidis S, Donald PJ. Malignant mucosal melanoma of the head and neck: review of the literature and report of 14 patients. Cancer. 1997;80:1373–1386
  71. Patel SG, Prasad ML, Escrig M, Singh B, Shaha AR, Kraus DH, et al. Primary mucosal malignant melanoma of the head and neck. Head Neck. 2002;24:247–257
  72. Kato T, Takematsu H, Tomita Y, Takahash M, Abe R. Malignant melanoma of mucous membranes. Arch Dermatol. 1987;123:216–220
  73. Stern SJ, Guillamondegui OM. Mucosal melanoma of the head and neck. Head Neck. 1991;13:22–27
  74. Batsakis JG, Regezi JA, Solomon AR, Rice DH. The pathology of head and neck tumors: mucosal melanoma, part 13. Head Neck Surg. 1982;4:404–418
  75. Lee SP, Shimizu KT, Tran LM, Juillard G, Calcaterra TC. Mucosal melanoma of the head and neck: the impact of local control on survival. Laryngoscope. 1994;104:121–126
  76. Koh HK, Miller DR, Geller AC, Clapp RW, Mercer MB, Lew RA. Who discovers melanoma? (Patterns from a population-based survey). J Am Acad Dermatol. 1992;26:914–919
  77. Schwartz JL, Wang TS, Hamilton TA, Clapp RW, Mercer MB, Lew RA. Thin primary cutaneous melanomas: associated detection patterns, lesion characteristics, and patient characteristics. Cancer. 2002;95:1562–1568
  78. Beardmore GL, Cavis NC. Multiple primary cutaneous melanomas. Arch Dermatol. 1975;111:603–609
  79. Kang S, Barnhill RL, Mihm MC, Sober AJ. Multiple primary cutaneous melanomas. Cancer. 1992;70:1911–1916
  80. Johnson TM, Hamilton T, Lowe L. Multiple primary melanomas. J Am Acad Dermatol. 1998;39:422–427
  81. Moseley HS, Giuliano AE, Storm FK, Clark WH, Robinson DS, Morton DL. Multiple primary melanoma. Cancer. 1979;43:939–944
  82. American Academy of Dermatology. Melanoma/skin cancer: you can recognize the signs. AAD patient handout. Evanston, IL: American Academy of Dermatology; 1986;
  83. McGovern TW, Litaker MS. Clinical predictors of malignant pigmented lesions, a comparison of the Glasgow seven-point checklist and the American Cancer Society’s ABCDs of pigmented lesions. J Dermatol Surg Oncol. 1992;18:22–26
  84. MacKie RM. Clinical recognition of early invasive melanoma. BMJ. 1990;301:1005–1006
  85. Rigel DS, Friedman RJ, Kopf AW, Polsky D. ABCDE—an evolving concept in the early detection of melanoma. Arch Dermatol. 2005;141:1032–1034
  86. Abbasi NR, Shaw HM, Rigel DS, Friedman JL, McCarthy WH, Osman I, et al. Early diagnosis of cutaneous melanoma: revisiting the ABCD criteria. JAMA. 2004;292:2771–2776
  87. Grob JJ, Bonerandi JJ. The “ugly duckling”sign: identification of the common characteristics of nevi in an individual as a basis for melanoma screening. Arch Dermatol. 1998;134:103–104
  88. Stadelmann WK, McMasters K, Digenis AG, Reintgen DS. Cutaneous melanoma of the head and neck: advances in evaluation and treatment. Plast Reconstr Surg. 2000;05:2105–2126
  89. National Comprehensive Cancer Network Clinical Practice Guidelines in Oncology, v. 2.2005. Rockledge PA: Melanoma; 2005;NCCN, Inc. Visit www.nccn.org for recent updates. Accessed December 13, 2005.
  90. Johnson TM, Bradford CR, Gruber SB, Sondak VK, Schwartz JL. Staging workup, sentinel node biopsy, and follow-up tests for melanoma. Arch Dermatol. 2004;140:107–113
  91. Ardizzoni A, Grimaldi A, Repetto L, Bruzzone M, Sertoli MR, Rosso R. Stage I-II melanoma: the value of metastatic work-up. Oncology. 1987;44:87–89
  92. Khansur T, Sanders J, Das SK. Evaluation of staging workup in malignant melanoma. Arch Surg. 1989;124:847–849
  93. Wang TS, Johnson TM, Cascade PN, Redman BG, Sondak VK, Schwartz JL. Evaluation of staging chest radiographs and serum lactate dehydrogenase for localized melanoma. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2004;51:399–405
  94. Buzaid AC, Sandler AB, Mani S, Curtis AM, Poow J, Bolognia JL, et al. Role of computed tomography in the staging of primary melanoma. J Clin Oncol. 1993;11:638–643
  95. Curtis AM, Ravin CE, Deering TF, Putman CE, McCloud TC, Greenspan RH. The efficacy of full-lung tomography in the detection of early metastatic disease from melanoma. Radiology. 1982;144:27–29
  96. Au FC, Maier WP, Malmud LS, Goldman LI, Clark WH. Preoperative nuclear scans in patients with melanoma. Cancer. 1984;53:2095–2097
  97. Roth JA, Eilber FR, Bennett LR, Morton DL. Radionuclide photoscanning: usefulness in preoperative evaluation of melanoma patients. Arch Surg. 1975;110:1211–1212
  98. Johnson TM, Chang A, Redman B, Rees R, Bradford CR, Riba M, et al. Management of melanoma with a multidisciplinary melanoma clinic model. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2000;42:820–826
  99. Basler GC, Fader DJ, Yahanda A, Sondak VK, Johnson TM. The utility of fine needle aspiration in the diagnosis of melanoma metastatic to lymph nodes. J Am Acad Dermatol. 1997;36:403–408
  100. Balch CM, Soong SJ, Gershenwald JE, Thompson JF, Reintgen DS, Cascinelli N, et al. Prognostic factors analysis of 17,600 melanoma patients: validation of the American Joint Committee on Cancer melanoma staging system. J Clin Oncol. 2001;19:3622–3634
  101. Balch CM, Buzaid AC, Soong SJ, Atkins MB, Cascinelli N, Coit DG, et al. Final version of the American Joint Committee on Cancer staging system for cutaneous melanoma. J Clin Oncol. 2001;19:3635–3648
  102. Breslow A. Thickness, cross-sectional areas and depth of invasion in the prognosis of cutaneous melanoma. Ann Surg. 1970;172:902–908
  103. Balch CM, Wilkerson JA, Murad TM, Soong SJ, Ingalls AL, Maddox WA. The prognostic significance of ulceration of cutaneous melanoma. Cancer. 1980;45:3012–3017
  104. Azzola MF, Shaw HM, Thompson JF. Tumor mitotic rate is a more powerful prognostic indicator than ulceration in patients with primary cutaneous melanoma, an analysis of 3661 patients from a single center. Cancer. 2003;97:1488–1498
  105. Ostmeier H, Fuchs B, Otto F, Mawick R, Lippold A, Krieg V, et al. Can immunohistochemical markers and mitotic rate improve prognostic precision in patients with primary melanoma?. Cancer. 1999;85:2391–2399
  106. Buzaid AC, Tinoco LA, Jendiroba D, Tu ZN, Lee JJ, Legha SS, et al. Prognostic value of size of lymph node metastases in patients with cutaneous melanoma. J Clin Oncol. 1995;13:2361–2368
  107. Buzaid AC, Ross MI, Balch CM, Soong S, McCarthy WH, Tinoco L, et al. Critical analysis of the current American Joint Committee on Cancer staging system for cutaneous melanoma and proposal of a new staging system. J Clin Oncol. 1997;15:1039–1051
  108. Harrist T, Rigel D, Day C, Sober AJ, Lew RA, Rhodes AR, et al. Microscopic satellites are more highly associated with regional lymph node metastases than with primary melanoma thickness. Cancer. 1984;53:2183–2187
  109. Morton DL, Davtyan DG, Wanek LA, Foshag ILA, Cochran AJ. Multivariate analysis of the relationship between survival and the microstage of primary melanoma by Clark level and Breslow thickness. Cancer. 1993;71:3737–3743
  110. Brand CU, Ellwanger U, Stroebel W, Meier F, Schlagenhauff B, Rassner G, et al. Prolonged survival of 2 years or longer for patients with disseminated melanoma, an analysis of related prognostic factors. Cancer. 1997;79:2345–2353
  111. Deichmann M, Benner A, Bock M, Jackel A, Uhl K, Waldmann V, et al. S100-Beta, melanoma-inhibiting activity, and lactate dehydrogenase discriminate progressive from nonprogressive American Joint Committee on Cancer stage IV melanoma. J Clin Oncol. 1999;17:1891–1896
  112. Eton O, Legha SS, Moon TE, Buzaid AC, Papadopoulos NE, Plager C, et al. Prognostic factors for survival of patients treated systemically for disseminated melanoma. J Clin Oncol. 1998;16:1103–1111
  113. Sirott MN, Bajorin DF, Wong GY, Tao Y, Chapman PB, Templeton MA, et al. Prognostic factors in patients with metastatic malignant melanoma, a multivariate analysis. Cancer. 1993;72:3091–3098
  114. Barth A, Wanek LA, Morton DL. Prognostic factors in 1,521 melanoma patients with distant metastases. J Am Coll Surg. 1995;181:193–201
  115. Garbe C, B°ttner P, Bertz J, Burg G, d’Hoedt B, Drepper H, et al. Primary cutaneous melanoma: prognostic classification of anatomic location. Cancer. 1995;75:2492–2498
  116. Fisher SR. Cutaneous malignant melanoma of the head and neck. Laryngoscope. 1989;99:822–836
  117. Fisher SR, Seigler HF, George SL. Therapeutic and prognostic considerations of head and neck melanoma. Ann Plast Surg. 1992;28:78–80
  118. Handley WS. The pathology of melanotic growths in relation to their operative treatment. Lancet. 1907;1:996–1003
  119. Breslow A, Macht SD. Optimal size of resection for thin cutaneous melanoma. Surg Gynecol Obstet. 1997;145:691–692
  120. Veronesi U, Adamus J, Bandiera DC, Brennhovd O, Caceres E, Cascinelli N, et al. Delayed regional lymph node dissection in stage I melanoma of the skin of the lower extremities. Cancer. 1982;49:2420–2430
  121. Veronesi U, Cascinelli N, Adamus J, Balch C, Bandiera D, Barchuk A, et al. Thin stage I primary cutaneous malignant melanoma: comparison of excision with margins of 1 or 3 cm. N Engl J Med. 1998;318:1159–1162
  122. Balch CM, Soong SJ, Smith T, Ross MI, Urist MM, Karakousis CP, et al. Long-term results of a prospective surgical trial comparing 2 cm vs. 4 cm excision margins for 740 patients with 1-4 mm melanomas. Ann Surg Oncol. 2001;8:101–108
  123. Thomas JM, Newton-Bishop J, A’Hern R, Coombes G, Timmons M, Evans J, et al. Excision margins in high-risk melanoma. N Engl J Med. 2004;350:757–766
  124. Johnson TM, Sondak VK. Melanoma margins: the importance and need for more evidence-based trials. Arch Dermatol. 2004;140:1148–1150
  125. Heaton KM, Sussman JJ, Gershenwald JE, Lee JR, Reintgen DS, Mansfield PF, et al. Surgical margins and prognostic factors in patients with thick (>4mm) primary melanomas. Ann Surg Oncol. 1998;5:322–328
  126. Barzilai DA, Singer ME. The potential impact on melanoma mortality of reducing rates of suboptimal excision margins. J Invest Dermatol. 2003;120:1067–1072
  127. Kenady DE, Brown BE, McBride CM. Excision of underlying fascia with a primary malignant melanoma: effect on recurrence and survival rates. Surgery. 1982;92:615–618
  128. Johnson TM, Smith JW, Nelson BR, Chang A. Current therapy for cutaneous melanoma. J Am Acad Dermatol. 1995;32:689–707
  129. Johnson TM, Headington JT, Baker SR, Lowe L. Usefulness of the staged excision for lentigo maligna and lentigo maligna melanoma: the “square” procedure. J Am Acad Dermatol. 1997;37:758–764
  130. Lent WM, Ariyan S. Flap reconstruction following wide local excision for primary malignant melanoma of the head and neck region. Ann Plast Surg. 1994;33:23–27
  131. Uren RF, Howman-Giles RB, Shaw HM, Thompson JF, McCarthy WH. Lymphoscintigraphy in high risk melanoma of the trunk: predicting draining node groups, defining lymphatic channels and locating the sentinel node. J Nucl Med. 1993;34:1435–1440
  132. Wanebo HJ, Cooper PH, Young DV, Harpole DH, Kaiser DL. Prognostic factors in head and neck melanoma. Cancer. 1988;62:831–837
  133. Byers RM, Smith JL, Russell N, Rosenberg V. Malignant melanoma of the external ear, review of 102 cases. Am J Surg. 1980;140:518–521
  134. Cole DJ, Mackay GJ, Walker BF, Wooden WA, Murray DR, Coleman JJ. Melanoma of the external ear. J Surg Oncol. 1992;50:110–114
  135. Balch CM. The role of elective lymph node dissection in melanoma: rationale, results, and controversies. J Clin Oncol. 1988;6:163–172
  136. Myers JN. Value of neck dissection in the treatment of patients with intermediate-thickness cutaneous malignant melanoma of the head and neck. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 1999;25:110–117
  137. Byers RM. Treatment of the neck in melanoma. Otolaryngol Clin North Am. 1998;31:833–839
  138. Goepfert H, Jesse RH, Ballantyne AJ. Posterolateral neck dissection. Arch Otolaryngol. 1980;106:618–620
  139. Sim FH, Taylor WF, Ivins JC, Pritchard DJ, Soule EH. A prospective randomized study of the efficacy of routine elective lymphadenopathy in management of malignant melanoma. Cancer. 1978;41:948–956
  140. Cascinelli N, Morabito A, Santinami M, MacKie RM, Belli F. Immediate or delayed dissection of regional nodes in patients with melanoma of the trunk: a randomized trial. WHO Melanoma Programme. Lancet. 1998;351:793–796
  141. Veronesi U, Adamus J, Bandiera DC, Brennhovd IO, caceres E, Cascinelli N, et al. Inefficacy of immediate node dissection in stage I melanoma of the limbs. N Engl J Med. 1977;297:627–630
  142. Balch CM, Soong SJ, Bartolucci AA, Urist MM, Karakousis CP, Smith TJ, et al. Efficacy of an elective regional lymph node dissection of 1 to 4 mm thick melanomas for patients 60 years of age and younger. Ann Surg. 1996;224:255–266
  143. McMasters KM, Sondak VK, Lotze MT, Ross MI. Recent advances in melanoma staging and therapy. Ann Surg Oncol. 1999;6:467–475
  144. Balch CM, Soong SJ, Ross MI, Urist MM, Karakousis CP, Temple WJ, et al. Long-term results of a multi-institutional randomized trial comparing prognostic factors and surgical results for intermediate thickness melanomas (1.0 to 4.0 mm): Intergroup Melanoma Surgical Trial. Ann Surg Oncol. 2000;7:87–97
  145. Urist MN, Balch CM, Soong S, Milton GW, Shaw HM, McGovern VJ, et al. Head and neck melanoma in 534 clinical stage I patients. Ann Surg. 1984;200:769–775
  146. Morton DL, Wen DR, Wong JH, Economou JS, Cagle LA, Storm FK, et al. Technical details of intraoperative lymphatic mapping for early stage melanoma. Ann Surg. 1992;127:392–399
  147. Rousseau DL, Ross MI, Johnson MM, Prieto VG, Lee JE, Mansfield PF, et al. Revised American joint committee on cancer staging criteria accurately predict sentinel lymph node positivity in clinically node-negative melanoma patients. Ann Surg Oncol. 2003;10:569–574
  148. McMasters KM, Reintgen DS, Ross MI, Gershenwald JE, Edwards MJ, Sober A, et al. Sentinel lymph node biopsy for melanoma: controversy despite widespread agreement. J Clin Oncol. 2001;19:2851–2855
  149. McMasters KM, Noyes RD, Reintgen DS, Goydos JS, Beitsch PD, Davidson BS, et al. Lessons learned from the sunbelt melanoma trial. J Surg Oncol. 2004;86:212–223
  150. Morton DL, Thompson JF, Essner R, Elashoff R, Stern SL, Nieweg OE, et al. Validation of the accuracy of intraoperative lymphatic mapping and sentinel lymphadenectomy for early-stage melanoma. Ann Surg. 1999;230:453–463
  151. Morton DL, Cochran AJ, Thompson JF, Elashoff R, Essner R, Glass ED, et al Sentinel node biopsy for early-stage melanoma accuracy and morbidity in MSLT-I, an international multicenter trial. Ann Surg. 2005;242:302–313
  152. Karimipour DJ, Lowe L, Su L, Hamilton T, Sondak V, Johnson TM, et al. Standard immunostains for melanoma in sentinel lymph node specimens: which ones are most useful?. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2004;50:759–764
  153. Cohen LM, McCall MW, Hodge SJ. Successful treatment of lentigo maligna and lentigo maligna melanoma with Mohs micrographic surgery aided by rush permanents sections. Cancer. 1994;73:2964–2970
  154. Wagner JD, Davidson D, Coleman JJ, Hutchins G, Schauwecker D, Park HM, et al. Lymph node tumor volumes in patients undergoing sentinel lymph node biopsy for cutaneous melanoma. Ann Surg Oncol. 1999;6:398–404
  155. Joseph E, Brobeil A, Glass F, Messina J, DeConti R, Cruse CW, et al. Results of complete lymph node dissection in 83 melanoma patients with positive sentinel nodes. Ann Surg Oncol. 1998;5:119–125
  156. Cascinelli N, Belli F, Santinami M, Fait V, Testori Q, Ruka W, et al. Sentinel lymph node biopsy in cutaneous melanoma: the WHO Melanoma Program experience. Ann Surg Oncol. 2000;7:469–774
  157. Haigh PI, Lucci A, Turner RR, Bostick PH, Krasne DL, Stern SL, et al. Carbon dye histologically confirms the identity of sentinel lymph nodes in cutaneous melanoma. Cancer. 2001;92:535–541
  158. Su LD, Fullen DR, Lowe L, Wang TS, Schwartz JL, Cimmino VM, et al. Desmoplastic and neurotropic melanoma analysis of 33 patients with lymphatic mapping and sentinel lymph node biopsy. Cancer. 2004;100:598–604
  159. Schmalbach CE, Nussenbaum B, Rees RS, Schwartz J, Johnson TM, Bradford CR. Reliability of sentinel lymph node mapping with biopsy for head and neck cutaneous melanoma. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 2003;129:61–65
  160. Gershenwald JE, Thompson W, Mansfield PF, Lee JE, Colome MI, Tseng CH, et al. Multi-institutional melanoma lymphatic mapping experience: the prognostic value of sentinel lymph node status in 612 stage I or II melanoma patients. J Clin Oncol. 1999;17:976–983
  161. Chao C, Wong SL, Edwards MJ, Ross MI, Reintgen DS, Noyes D, et al. Sentinel lymph node biopsy for head and neck melanoma. Ann Surg Oncol. 2003;10:21–26
  162. McMasters KM, Noyes D, Reintgen D, Goydos JS, Beitsch PD, Davidson BS. Lessons learned from the sunbelt melanoma trial. J Surg Oncol. 2004;86:212–223
  163. O’Brien CJ, Uren RF, Thompson JF, Howman-Giles RB, Petersen-Schaefer K, Shaw HM, et al. Prediction of potential metastatic sites in cutaneous head and neck melanoma using lymphoscintigraphy. Am J Surg. 1995;170:461–466
  164. Eicher SA, Clayman GL, Myers JN, Gillenwater AM. A prospective study of intraoperative lymphatic mapping for head and neck cutaneous melanoma. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 2002;128:241–246
  165. Gershenwald JE, Colome MI, Lee JE, Mansfield PF, Tseng C, Lee JJ, et al. Patterns of recurrence following a negative sentinel lymph node biopsy in 243 patients with stage I or II melanoma. J Clin Oncol. 1998;16:2253–2254
  166. Alex JC, Krag DN, Harlow SP, Meijer Sl, Loggie BW, Kuhn J, et al. Localization of regional lymph nodes in melanomas of the head and neck. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 1998;124:135–140
  167. Patel SG, Coit DG, Shaha AR, Brady MS, Moyle JO, Singh B, et al. Sentinel lymph node biopsy for cutaneous head and neck melanomas. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 2002;128:285–291
  168. Ollila DW, Foshag LJ, Essner R, Stern SL, Morton DL. Parotid region lymphatic mapping and sentinel lymphadenectomy for cutaneous melanoma. Ann Surg Oncol. 1999;6:150–154
  169. Pawlik TM, Ross MI, Thompson JF, Eggermont AMM, Gershenwald JE. The risk of in-transit melanoma metastasis depends on tumor biology and not the surgical approach to regional lymph nodes. J Clin Ocol. 2005;23:4588–4590
  170. Thomas JM, Clark MA. Selective lymphadenectomy in sentinel node-positive patients may increase the risk of local/in-transit recurrence in malignant melanoma. Eur J Surg Oncol. 2004;30:686–691
  171. Thomas JM, Clark MA. Sentinel lymph node biopsy: not yet standard of care for melanoma. BMJ. 2004;329:170
  172. Thomas JM, Clark MA. Are there guidance issues relating to sentinel node biopsy for melanoma in the UK?. Br J Plast Surg. 2004;57:689–690
  173. Estourgie SH, Nieweg OE, Valdes Olmos RA, Hoefnagel CA, Kroon BB. Review and evaluation of sentinel node procedures in 250 melanoma patients with a median follow-up of 6 years. Ann Surg Oncol. 2003;10:681–688
  174. Estourgie SH, Nieweg OE, Kroon BB. High incidence of in-transit metastases after sentinel node biopsy in patients with melanoma. Br J Surg. 2004;91:1370–1371
  175. Kang JC, Wanek LA, Essner R, Faries MB, Foshag LJ, Morton DL. Sentinel lymphadenectomy does not increase the incidence of in-transit metastases in primary melanoma. J Clin Oncol. 2005;23:4764–4770
  176. Pawlik T, Ross M, Johnson M, Schacherer CW, McClain DM, Mansfield PF, et al. Predictors and natural history of in-transit melanoma after sentinel lymphadenectomy. Ann Surg Oncol. 2005;12:587–596
  177. Van Poll D, Thompson JF, Colman MH, McKinnon JG, Saw RP, Stretch JR, et al. A sentinel node biopsy does not increase the incidence of in-transit metastasis in patients with primary cutaneous melanoma. Ann Surg Oncol. 2005;12:597–608
  178. McMasters KM. The sunbelt melanoma trial. Ann Surg Oncol. 2001;8:41S–43S
  179. McMasters KM. What good is sentinel lymph node biopsy for melanoma if it does not improve survival?. Ann Surg Oncol. 2004;11:810–812
  180. Lee JH, Essner R, Torisu-Itakure H, Wanek L, Wang H, Morton DL. Factors predictive of tumor-positive nonsentinel lymph nodes after tumor-positive sentinel lymph node dissection for melanoma. J Clin Oncol. 2004;22:3677–3684
  181. Cochran AJ, Wen DR, Huang RR, Wang HJ, Elashoff R, Morton DL. Prediction of metastatic melanoma in nonsentinel nodes and clinical outcome based on the primary melanoma and the sentinel node. Mod Pathol. 2004;17:747–755
  182. Sabel MS, Strecher VJ, Schwartz JL, Wang TS, Marimipour DJ, Orringer JS, et al. Predictors of nonsentinel lymph node positivity in patients with a positive sentinel node for melanoma. J Am Coll Surg. 2005;201:37–47
  183. Ribuffo D, Gradilone A, Vonella M, Chiummariello S, Cigna E, Haliassos N, et al. Prognostic significance of reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction-negative sentinel nodes in malignant melanoma. Ann Surg Oncol. 2003;10:396–402
  184. Shivers S, Wang X, Li W, Joseph E, Messina J, Glass LF, et al. Molecular staging of malignant melanoma: correlation with clinical outcome. JAMA. 1998;280:1410–1415
  185. Bostick PJ, Morton DL, Turner RR, Huyuh KT, Wang HJ, Elashoff R, et al. Prognostic significance of occult metastases detected by sentinel lymphadenectomy and reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction in early stage melanoma patients. J Clin Oncol. 1999;17:3238–3244
  186. Morton DL, Hoon DSB, Cochran AJ, Turner RR, Essner R, Takeuchi J, et al. Lymphatic mapping and sentinel lymphadenectomy for early-stage melanoma. Ann Surg. 2003;238:538–550
  187. McMasters KM. Molecular staging of melanoma: sensitivity, specificity, and the search for clinical significance. Ann Surg Oncol. 2003;10:336–337
  188. Kalady MF, White RR, Johnson JL, Tyler DS, Seigler HF. Thin melanomas: predictive lethal characteristics form a 30-year clinical experience. Ann Surg. 2003;238:528–537
  189. Whited JD, Grichnik JM. Does this patient have a mole or a melanoma?. JAMA. 1998;279:696–701
  190. Allen PJ, Coit DG. The surgical management of metastatic melanoma. Ann Surg Oncol. 2002;9:762–770
  191. Morton DL, Essner R. Surgical excision of distant metastases. In:  Balch CM,  Houghton AN,  Sober AJ,  Soong SJ editor. Cutaneous Melanoma. St. Louis, MO: Quality Medical Publishing; 2003;
  192. Lentsch EJ, Myers JN. Melanoma of the head and neck: current concepts in diagnosis and management. Laryngoscope. 2001;111:1209–1222
  193. Trask PC, Paterson AG, Hayasaka S, Dunn RL, Riba M, Johnson T. Psychosocial characteristics of individuals with non-stage IV melanoma. J Clin Oncol. 2001;19:2844–2850
  194. Creagan ET, Cupps RE, Ivins JC, Pritchard DJ, Sim FH, Soule EH, et al. Adjuvant radiation therapy for regional nodal metastases from malignant melanoma, a randomized prospective study. Cancer. 1978;42:2206–2210
  195. Ang KK, Byers RM, Peters LJ, Maor MH, Wendt CD, Morrison WH, et al. Regional radiotherapy as adjuvant treatment for head and neck malignant melanoma. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 1990;116:169–172
  196. Ang KK, Peters LJ, Weber RS, Morrison WH, Frankenthaler RA, Garden AS, et al. Postoperative radiotherapy for cutaneous melanoma of the head and neck region. Int J Radiat Oncol. 1994;30:795–798
  197. Ballo MT, Bonnen MD, Garden AS, Myers JN, Gershenwald JE, Zagars GK, et al. Adjuvant irradiation for cervical lymph node metastases from melanoma. Cancer. 2003;97:1789–1796
  198. Byers RM. The role of modified neck dissection in the treatment of cutaneous melanoma of the head and neck. Arch Surg. 1986;121:1338–1341
  199. Ridge JA. Adjuvant radiation after lymph node dissection for melanoma. Ann Surg Oncol. 2000;7:550–551
  200. Shen P, Wanek LA, Morton DL. Is adjuvant radiotherapy necessary after positive lymph node dissection in head and neck melanoma. Ann Surg Oncol. 2000;7:554–559
  201. Ainslie J, Peters LJ, McKay MS. Radiotherapy for primary and regional melanoma. In:  Balch CM,  Houghton AN,  Sober AJ,  Soong SJ editor. Cutaneous Melanoma. St. Louis, MO: Quality Medical Publishing; 2003;
  202. O’Brien CJ, Petersen-Schaefer K, Stevens GN, Bass PC, Tew P, Gebski VJ, et al. Adjuvant radiotherapy following neck dissection and parotidectomy for metastatic malignant melanoma. Head Neck. 1997;19:589–594
  203. Stevens G, Thompson JF, Firth I, O’Brien CH, McCarthy WH, Quinn MJ. Locally advanced melanoma, results of postoperative hypofractionated radiation therapy. Cancer. 2000;88:88–94
  204. Terando A, Sabel MS, Sondak VK. Melanoma: adjuvant therapy and other treatments. Curr Treat Options Oncol. 2003;4:187–199
  205. Harwood AR. Conventional fractionated radiotherapy for 51 patients with lentigo maligna and lentigo maligna melanoma. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 1983;9:1019–1021
  206. Atkins MB, Buzaid AC, Houghton AN. Systemic chemotherapy and biochemotherapy. In:  Balch CM,  Houghton AN,  Sober AJ,  Soong SJ editor. Cutaneous Melanoma. St. Louis, MO: Quality Medical Publishing; 2003;
  207. Soengas MS, Lowe SW. Apoptosis and melanoma chemoresistance. Oncogene. 2003;22:3138–3151
  208. Pawlik TM, Sondak VK. Malignant melanoma: current state of primary and adjuvant treatment. Clin Rev Oncol Heme. 2003;45:245–264
  209. Li Y, McClay EF. Systemic chemotherapy for the treatment of metastatic melanoma. Semin Oncol. 2003;29:413–426
  210. Hill GJ, Moss SE, Golomb FM, Grage TB, Fletcher WS, Minton JP, et al. DTIC and combination therapy for melanoma: III. DTIC (NSC 45388) Surgical Adjuvant study COG Protocol 7040. Cancer. 1981;47:2556–2562
  211. Biasco G, Pantaleo MA, Casadei S. Treatment of brain metastases of malignant melanoma with temazolomide. N Engl J Med. 2001;345:621–622
  212. Shaw PM, Sivanandham M, Bernik SF, Ditaranto K, Wallack MK. Adjuvant immunotherapy for patients with melanoma: are patients with melanoma of the head and neck candidates for this therapy?. Head Neck. 1997;19:595–603
  213. Kirkwood JM, Strawderman MH, Ernstoff MC, Smith TJ, Borden EC, Blum RH. Interferon alpha-2b adjuvant therapy of high-risk resected cutaneous melanoma: the Eastern Cooperative Oncology Group Trial EST 1684. J Clin Oncol. 1996;14:7–17
  214. Kirkwood JM, Ibrahim JG, Sondak VK, Richards J, Flaherty LE, Ernstoff MS, et al. High- and low-dose interferon alfa- 2b in high-risk melanoma: first analysis of Intergroup Trial E1690/S9111/C9190. J Clin Oncol. 2000;18:2444–2459
  215. Kirkwood JM, Ibrahim JG, Sosman JA, Sondak VK, Agarwala SS, Ernstoff MS, et al. High-dose interferon alfa-2b significantly prolongs relapse-free and overall survival compared with the GM2-KLH/QS-21 vaccine in patients with resected stage IIB-III melanoma: results of Intergroup Trial E1694/S9512/C509801. J Clin Oncol. 2001;19:2370–2380
  216. Kilbridge KL, Cole BF, Kirkwood JM, Haluska FG, Atkins MA, Ruckdeschel JC, et al. Quality-of-life-adjusted survival analysis of high-dose adjuvant interferon alpha-2b for high-risk melanoma patients using intergroup clinical trial data. J Clin Oncol. 2002;20:1311–1318
  217. Cascinelli N, Belli F, MacKie RM, Santinami M, Bufalino R, Morabito A. Effect of long-term adjuvant therapy with interferon alpha-2a in patients with regional node metastases from cutaneous melanoma: a randomized trial. Lancet. 2001;358:866–869
  218. Sabel MS, Sondak VK. Pros and cons of adjuvant interferon in the treatment of melanoma. Oncologist. 2003;8:451–458
  219. Robbins PG, Rosenberg SA. Melanoma antigens and their use as vaccines. In:  Balch CM,  Houghton AN,  Sober AJ,  Soong SJ editor. Cutaneous Melanoma. St. Louis, MO: Quality Medical Publishing; 2003;
  220. Rosenberg SA, Yang JC, Topalian SL, Schwartzentruber DJ, Weber JS, Parkinson DR, et al. Treatment of 283 consecutive patients with metastatic melanoma or renal cell cancer using high-dose bolus interleukin-2. JAMA. 1994;271:907–913
  221. Banky JP, Kelly JW, English DR, Yeaman JM, Dowling JP. Incidence of new and changed nevi and melanomas detected using baseline images and dermoscopy in patients at high risk for melanoma. Arch Dermatol. 2005;141:998–1006
  222. Bittner M, Meltzer P, Chen Y, Jiang Y, Seftor E, Hendrix M, et al. Molecular classification of cutaneous malignant melanoma by gene expression profiling. Nature. 2000;406:536–540
  223. Myers JN. Adjuvant immunotherapy for patients with melanoma. Head Neck. 1998;20:270

PII: S0011-3840(06)00078-5

doi: 10.1067/j.cpsurg.2006.08.003

Current Problems in Surgery
Volume 43, Issue 11 , Pages 781-835 , November 2006