Current Problems in Surgery
Volume 46, Issue 2 , Pages 119-184 , February 2009

Contemporary Management of Oropharyngeal Cancer

  • Umamaheswar Duvvuri, MD, PhD

      Affiliations

    • Assistant Professor, Department of Otolaryngology, University of Pittsburgh Medical Center, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
    • ,
  • Jeffrey N. Myers, MD, PhD

      Affiliations

    • Professor and Director of Research, Deputy Chair for Academic Programs, Department of Head and Neck Surgery, The University of Texas M.D. Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas

References 

  1. Rouviere H. Anatomie des lymphatiques de l'homme. Paris: Masson; 1932;
  2. Lindberg R. Distribution of cervical lymph node metastases from squamous cell carcinoma of the upper respiratory and digestive tracts. Cancer. 1972;29:1446–1449
  3. Ballantyne AJ. Significance of retropharyngeal nodes in cancer of the head and neck. Am J Surg. 1964;108:500–504
  4. Califano J, van der Riet P, Westra W, et al. Genetic progression model for head and neck cancer: implications for field cancerization. Cancer Res. 1996;56:2488–2492
  5. Forastiere A, Koch W, Trotti A, et al. Head and neck cancer. N Engl J Med. 2001;345:1890–1900
  6. Ha PK, Califano JA. Promoter methylation and inactivation of tumour-suppressor genes in oral squamous-cell carcinoma. Lancet Oncol. 2006;7:77–82
  7. Hanahan D, Weinberg RA. The hallmarks of cancer. Cell. 2000;100:57–70
  8. Gassner HG, Sabri AN, Olsen KD. Oropharyngeal malignancy. In:  Cummings CW editors. Cummings' Otolaryngology–Head & Neck Surgery. St Louis: Mosby; 2005;
  9. Marur S, Forastiere AA. Head and neck cancer: changing epidemiology, diagnosis, and treatment. Mayo Clin Proc. 2008;83:489–501
  10. Werness BA, Levine AJ, Howley PM. Association of human papillomavirus types 16 and 18 E6 proteins with p53. Science. 1990;248:76–79
  11. Dyson N, Howley PM, Munger K, et al. The human papilloma virus-16 E7 oncoprotein is able to bind to the retinoblastoma gene product. Science. 1989;243:934–937
  12. Munoz N, Bosch FX, de Sanjose S, et al. Epidemiologic classification of human papillomavirus types associated with cervical cancer. N Engl J Med. 2003;348:518–527
  13. D'Souza G, Kreimer AR, Viscidi R, et al. Case-control study of human papillomavirus and oropharyngeal cancer. N Engl J Med. 2007;356:1944–1956
  14. Gillison ML, D'Souza G, Westra W, et al. Distinct risk factor profiles for human papillomavirus type 16-positive and human papillomavirus type 16-negative head and neck cancers. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2008;100:407–420
  15. Kreimer AR, Clifford GM, Boyle P, et al. Human papillomavirus types in head and neck squamous cell carcinomas worldwide: a systematic review. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 2005;14:467–475
  16. Herrero R, Castellsague X, Pawlita M, et al. Human papillomavirus and oral cancer: the International Agency for Research on Cancer multicenter study. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2003;95:1772–1783
  17. Gillison ML, Koch WM, Capone RB, et al. Evidence for a causal association between human papillomavirus and a subset of head and neck cancers. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2000;92:709–720
  18. Wiest T, Schwarz E, Enders C, et al. Involvement of intact HPV16 E6/E7 gene expression in head and neck cancers with unaltered p53 status and perturbed pRb cell cycle control. Oncogene. 2002;21:1510–1517
  19. Begum S, Gillison ML, Ansari-Lari MA, et al. Detection of human papillomavirus in cervical lymph nodes: a highly effective strategy for localizing site of tumor origin. Clin Cancer Res. 2003;9:6469–6475
  20. Lindel K, Beer KT, Laissue J, et al. Human papillomavirus positive squamous cell carcinoma of the oropharynx: a radiosensitive subgroup of head and neck carcinoma. Cancer. 2001;92:805–813
  21. Hansson BG, Rosenquist K, Antonsson A, et al. Strong association between infection with human papillomavirus and oral and oropharyngeal squamous cell carcinoma: a population-based case-control study in southern Sweden. Acta Otolaryngol. 2005;125:1337–1344
  22. Mork J, Lie AK, Glattre E, et al. Human papillomavirus infection as a risk factor for squamous-cell carcinoma of the head and neck. N Engl J Med. 2001;344:1125–1131
  23. Chaturvedi AK, Engels EA, Anderson WF, et al. Incidence trends for human papillomavirus-related and -unrelated oral squamous cell carcinomas in the United States. J Clin Oncol. 2008;26:612–619
  24. Fleming DT, McQuillan GM, Johnson RE, et al. Herpes simplex virus type 2 in the United States, 1976 to 1994. N Engl J Med. 1997;337:1105–1111
  25. Weinberger PM, Yu Z, Haffty BG, et al. Molecular classification identifies a subset of human papillomavirus-associated oropharyngeal cancers with favorable prognosis. J Clin Oncol. 2006;24:736–747
  26. Fakhry C, Westra WH, Li S, et al. Improved survival of patients with human papillomavirus-positive head and neck squamous cell carcinoma in a prospective clinical trial. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2008;100:261–269
  27. Silverman S, Gorsky M, Kaugars GE. Leukoplakia, dysplasia, and malignant transformation. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod. 1996;82:117
  28. Silverman S, Gorsky M, Lozada F. Oral leukoplakia and malignant transformation (A follow-up study of 257 patients). Cancer. 1984;53:563–568
  29. Schoelch ML, Sekandari N, Regezi JA, et al. Laser management of oral leukoplakias: a follow-up study of 70 patients. Laryngoscope. 1999;109:949–953
  30. Reichart PA, Philipsen HP. Oral erythroplakia—a review. Oral Oncol. 2005;41:551–561
  31. Conte CC, Ergin MT, Ricci A, et al. Clinical and pathologic prognostic variables in oropharyngeal squamous cell carcinoma. Am J Surg. 1989;157:582–584
  32. Fagan JJ, Collins B, Barnes L, et al. Perineural invasion in squamous cell carcinoma of the head and neck. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 1998;124:637–640
  33. Rahima B, Shingaki S, Nagata M, et al. Prognostic significance of perineural invasion in oral and oropharyngeal carcinoma. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod. 2004;97:423–431
  34. Hafkamp HC, Manni JJ, Speel EJ. Role of human papillomavirus in the development of head and neck squamous cell carcinomas. Acta Otolaryngol. 2004;124:520–526
  35. Poetsch M, Lorenz G, Bankau A, et al. Basaloid in contrast to nonbasaloid head and neck squamous cell carcinomas display aberrations especially in cell cycle control genes. Head Neck. 2003;25:904–910
  36. Beckhardt RN, Weber RS, Zane R, et al. Minor salivary gland tumors of the palate: clinical and pathologic correlates of outcome. Laryngoscope. 1995;105:1155–1160
  37. Garden AS, Weber RS, Ang KK, et al. Postoperative radiotherapy for malignant tumors of minor salivary glands (Outcome and patterns of failure). Cancer. 1994;73:2563–2569
  38. Laramore GE, Krall JM, Griffin TW, et al. Neutron versus photon irradiation for unresectable salivary gland tumors: final report of an RTOG-MRC randomized clinical trial (Radiotherapy Oncology Group. Medical Research Council). Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 1993;27:235–240
  39. Pogodzinski MS, Sabri AN, Lewis JE, et al. Retrospective study and review of polymorphous low-grade adenocarcinoma. Laryngoscope. 2006;116:2145–2149
  40. Cinberg JZ, Silver CE, Molnar JJ, et al. Cervical cysts: cancer until proven otherwise?. Laryngoscope. 1982;92:27–30
  41. Gourin CG, Johnson JT. Incidence of unsuspected metastases in lateral cervical cysts. Laryngoscope. 2000;110:1637–1641
  42. Randall DA, Johnstone PA, Foss RD, et al. Tonsillectomy in diagnosis of the unknown primary tumor of the head and neck. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 2000;122:52–55
  43. van Bokhorst-de van der Schueren MA, van Leeuwen PA, Sauerwein HP, et al. Assessment of malnutrition parameters in head and neck cancer and their relation to postoperative complications. Head Neck. 1997;19:419–425
  44. Feuerstein IM, Jicha DL, Pass HI, et al. Pulmonary metastases: MR imaging with surgical correlation—a prospective study. Radiology. 1992;182:123–129
  45. Hsu WC, Loevner LA, Karpati R, et al. Accuracy of magnetic resonance imaging in predicting absence of fixation of head and neck cancer to the prevertebral space. Head Neck. 2005;27:95–100
  46. Righi PD, Kelley DJ, Ernst R, et al. Evaluation of prevertebral muscle invasion by squamous cell carcinoma (Can computed tomography replace open neck exploration?). Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 1996;122:660–663
  47. Braams JW, Pruim J, Kole AC, et al. Detection of unknown primary head and neck tumors by positron emission tomography. Int J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 1997;26:112–115
  48. Miller FR, Karnad AB, Eng T, et al. Management of the unknown primary carcinoma: long-term follow-up on a negative PET scan and negative panendoscopy. Head Neck. 2008;30:28–34
  49. Fleming AJ, Smith SP, Paul CM, et al. Impact of [18F]-2-fluorodeoxyglucose-positron emission tomography/computed tomography on previously untreated head and neck cancer patients. Laryngoscope. 2007;117:1173–1179
  50. Chung TS, Stefani S. Distant metastases of carcinoma of tonsillar region: a study of 475 patients. J Surg Oncol. 1980;14:5–9
  51. Koch WM, Bhatti N, Williams MF, et al. Oncologic rationale for bilateral tonsillectomy in head and neck squamous cell carcinoma of unknown primary source. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 2001;124:331–333
  52. Selek U, Garden AS, Morrison WH, et al. Radiotherapy for early-stage carcinoma of the oropharynx. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 2004;59:743–751
  53. Fu KK, Pajak TF, Trotti A, et al. A Radiotherapy Oncology Group (RTOG) phase III randomized study to compare hyperfractionation and two variants of accelerated fractionation to standard fractionation radiotherapy for head and neck squamous cell carcinomas: first report of RTOG 9003. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 2000;48:7–16
  54. Ding M, Newman F, Raben D. New radiotherapy techniques for the treatment of head and neck cancer. Otolaryngol Clin North Am. 2005;38:371–395, vii-viii.
  55. Garden AS, Morrison WH, Wong PF, et al. Disease-control rates following intensity-modulated radiotherapy for small primary oropharyngeal carcinoma. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 2007;67:438–444
  56. Hodge CW, Bentzen SM, Wong G, Palazzi-Churas KL, Wiederholt PA, Gondi V, et al. Are we influencing outcome in oropharynx cancer with intensity-modulated radiotherapy? (An inter-era comparison). Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 2007;69:1032–1041
  57. Sterzing F, Herfarth K, Debus J. IGRT with helical tomotherapy—effort and benefit in clinical routine. Strahlenther Onkol. 2007;183(Spec No. 2):35–37
  58. Sterzing F, Schubert K, Sroka-Perez G, et al. Helical tomotherapy (Experiences of the first 150 patients in Heidelberg). Strahlenther Onkol. 2008;184:8–14
  59. Dawson LA, Sharpe MB. Image-guided radiotherapy: rationale, benefits, and limitations. Lancet Oncol. 2006;7:848–858
  60. Le Scodan R, Pommier P, Ardiet JM, et al. Exclusive brachytherapy for T1 and T2 squamous cell carcinomas of the velotonsillar area: results in 44 patients. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 2005;63:441–448
  61. Narayana A, Cohen GN, Zaider M, et al. High-dose-rate interstitial brachytherapy in recurrent and previously irradiated head and neck cancers—preliminary results. Brachytherapy. 2007;6:157–163
  62. Son YH, Sasaki CT. Nonsurgical alternative therapy for bulky advanced head and neck tumors. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 1995;121:991–993
  63. Vikram B, Mishra S. Permanent iodine-125 implants in postoperative radiotherapy for head and neck cancer with positive surgical margins. Head Neck. 1994;16:155–157
  64. Vikram B, Mishra S. Permanent iodine-125 (I-125) boost implants after external radiotherapy in nasopharyngeal cancer. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 1994;28:699–701
  65. Harrison LB, Lee HJ, Pfister DG, et al. Long term results of primary radiotherapy with/without neck dissection for squamous cell cancer of the base of tongue. Head Neck. 1998;20:668–673
  66. Nose T, Koizumi M, Nishiyama K. High-dose-rate interstitial brachytherapy for oropharyngeal carcinoma: results of 83 lesions in 82 patients. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 2004;59:983–991
  67. Hu K, Harrison LB. Point: brachytherapy versus intensity-modulated radiation therapy in the management of base of tongue cancers. Brachytherapy. 2005;4:1–4
  68. Pernot M, Malissard L, Hoffstetter S, et al. The study of tumoral, radiobiological, and general health factors that influence results and complications in a series of 448 oral tongue carcinomas treated exclusively by irradiation. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 1994;29:673–679
  69. Pernot M, Malissard L, Taghian A, et al. Velotonsillar squamous cell carcinoma: 277 cases treated by combined external irradiation and brachytherapy—results according to extension, localization, and dose rate. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 1992;23:715–723
  70. Douglas JG, Koh WJ, Austin-Seymour M, et al. Treatment of salivary gland neoplasms with fast neutron radiotherapy. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 2003;129:944–948
  71. Douglas JG, Laramore GE, Austin-Seymour M, et al. Treatment of locally advanced adenoid cystic carcinoma of the head and neck with neutron radiotherapy. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 2000;46:551–557
  72. Douglas JG, Laramore GE, Austin-Seymour M, et al. Neutron radiotherapy for adenoid cystic carcinoma of minor salivary glands. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 1996;36:87–93
  73. Huber PE, Debus J, Latz D, et al. Radiotherapy for advanced adenoid cystic carcinoma: neutrons, photons or mixed beam?. Radiother Oncol. 2001;59:161–167
  74. Catterall M, Errington RD. The implications of improved treatment of malignant salivary gland tumors by fast neutron radiotherapy. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 1987;13:1313–1318
  75. Catterall M, Errington RD, Bewley DK. A comparison of clinical and laboratory data on neutron therapy for locally advanced tumors. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 1987;13:1783–1791
  76. Calais G, Alfonsi M, Bardet E, et al. Randomized trial of radiotherapy versus concomitant chemotherapy and radiotherapy for advanced-stage oropharynx carcinoma. J Natl Cancer Inst. 1999;91:2081–2086
  77. Bonner JA, Harari PM, Giralt J, et al. Radiotherapy plus cetuximab for squamous-cell carcinoma of the head and neck. N Engl J Med. 2006;354:567–578
  78. Caudell JJ, Sawrie SM, Spencer SA, et al. Locoregionally advanced head and neck cancer treated with primary radiotherapy: a comparison of the addition of cetuximab or chemotherapy and the impact of protocol treatment. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 2008;71:676–681
  79. Posner MR, Hershock DM, Blajman CR, et al. Cisplatin and fluorouracil alone or with docetaxel in head and neck cancer. N Engl J Med. 2007;357:1705–1715
  80. Vermorken JB, Remenar E, van Herpen C, et al. Cisplatin, fluorouracil, and docetaxel in unresectable head and neck cancer. N Engl J Med. 2007;357:1695–1704
  81. Glisson BS, Murphy BA, Frenette G, et al. Phase II trial of docetaxel and cisplatin combination chemotherapy in patients with squamous cell carcinoma of the head and neck. J Clin Oncol. 2002;20:1593–1599
  82. Khuri FR, Shin DM, Glisson BS, et al. Treatment of patients with recurrent or metastatic squamous cell carcinoma of the head and neck: current status and future directions. Semin Oncol. 2000;27:25–33
  83. Pivot X, Cals L, Cupissol D, et al. Phase II trial of a paclitaxel-carboplatin combination in recurrent squamous cell carcinoma of the head and neck. Oncology. 2001;60:66–71
  84. Vermorken JB, Trigo J, Hitt R, et al. Open-label, uncontrolled, multicenter phase II study to evaluate the efficacy and toxicity of cetuximab as a single agent in patients with recurrent and/or metastatic squamous cell carcinoma of the head and neck who failed to respond to platinum-based therapy. J Clin Oncol. 2007;25:2171–2177
  85. Shedd DP. Wilfred Trotter, head and neck surgeon and sociologist. Head Neck. 1996;18:366–369
  86. Holsinger FC, McWhorter AJ, Menard M, et al. Transoral lateral oropharyngectomy for squamous cell carcinoma of the tonsillar region: I (Technique, complications, and functional results). Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 2005;131:583–591
  87. Laccourreye O, Hans S, Menard M, et al. Transoral lateral oropharyngectomy for squamous cell carcinoma of the tonsillar region: II (An analysis of the incidence, related variables, and consequences of local recurrence). Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 2005;131:592–599
  88. Steiner W, Fierek O, Ambrosch P, et al. Transoral laser microsurgery for squamous cell carcinoma of the base of the tongue. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 2003;129:36–43
  89. O'Malley BW, Weinstein GS, Snyder W, et al. Transoral robotic surgery (TORS) for base of tongue neoplasms. Laryngoscope. 2006;116:1465–1472
  90. Weinstein GS, O'Malley BW, Snyder W, et al. Transoral robotic surgery: radical tonsillectomy. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 2007;133:1220–1226
  91. Hockstein NG, O'Malley BW, Weinstein GS. Assessment of intraoperative safety in transoral robotic surgery. Laryngoscope. 2006;116:165–168
  92. Kraus DH, Vastola AP, Huvos AG, et al. Surgical management of squamous cell carcinoma of the base of the tongue. Am J Surg. 1993;166:384–388
  93. Shirazi HA, Sivanandan R, Goode R, et al. Advanced-staged tonsillar squamous carcinoma: organ preservation versus surgical management of the primary site. Head Neck. 2006;28:587–594
  94. Lundahl RE, Foote RL, Bonner JA, et al. Combined neck dissection and postoperative radiotherapy in the management of the high-risk neck: a matched-pair analysis. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 1998;40:529–534
  95. Soo KC, Tan EH, Wee J, et al. Surgery and adjuvant radiotherapy vs concurrent chemoradiotherapy in stage III/IV nonmetastatic squamous cell head and neck cancer: a randomised comparison. Br J Cancer. 2005;93:279–286
  96. Bernier J, Domenge C, Ozsahin M, et al. Postoperative irradiation with or without concomitant chemotherapy for locally advanced head and neck cancer. N Engl J Med. 2004;350:1945–1952
  97. Cooper JS, Pajak TF, Forastiere AA, et al. Postoperative concurrent radiotherapy and chemotherapy for high-risk squamous-cell carcinoma of the head and neck. N Engl J Med. 2004;350:1937–1944
  98. Pignon JP, Bourhis J, Domenge C, et al. Chemotherapy added to locoregional treatment for head and neck squamous-cell carcinoma: three meta-analyses of updated individual data (MACH-NC Collaborative Group. Meta-analysis of chemotherapy on head and neck cancer). Lancet. 2000;355:949–955
  99. Winquist E, Oliver T, Gilbert R. Postoperative chemoradiotherapy for advanced squamous cell carcinoma of the head and neck: a systematic review with meta-analysis. Head Neck. 2007;29:38–46
  100. Duvvuri U, Simental AA, D'Angelo G, et al. Elective neck dissection and survival in patients with squamous cell carcinoma of the oral cavity and oropharynx. Laryngoscope. 2004;114:2228–2234
  101. Wang MB, Kuber N, Kerner MM, et al. Tonsillar carcinoma: analysis of treatment results. J Otolaryngol. 1998;27:263–269
  102. Jones AS, Roland NJ, Field JK, et al. The level of cervical lymph node metastases: their prognostic relevance and relationship with head and neck squamous carcinoma primary sites. Clin Otolaryngol Allied Sci. 1994;19:63–69
  103. Lim YC, Koo BS, Choi EC. Bilateral neck node metastasis: a predictor of isolated distant metastasis in patients with oral and oropharyngeal squamous cell carcinoma after primary curative surgery. Laryngoscope. 2007;117:1576–1580
  104. Andersen PE, Warren F, Spiro J, et al. Results of selective neck dissection in management of the node-positive neck. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 2002;128:1180–1184
  105. Schiff BA, Roberts DB, El-Naggar A, et al. Selective vs modified radical neck dissection and postoperative radiotherapy vs observation in the treatment of squamous cell carcinoma of the oral tongue. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 2005;131:874–878
  106. Clayman GL, Johnson CJ, Morrison W, et al. The role of neck dissection after chemoradiotherapy for oropharyngeal cancer with advanced nodal disease. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 2001;127:135–139
  107. Lavertu P, Adelstein DJ, Saxton JP, et al. Management of the neck in a randomized trial comparing concurrent chemotherapy and radiotherapy with radiotherapy alone in resectable stage III and IV squamous cell head and neck cancer. Head Neck. 1997;19:559–566
  108. Lavertu P, Bonafede JP, Adelstein DJ, et al. Comparison of surgical complications after organ-preservation therapy in patients with stage III or IV squamous cell head and neck cancer. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 1998;124:401–406
  109. Corry J, Smith JG, Peters LJ. The concept of a planned neck dissection is obsolete. Cancer J. 2001;7:472–474
  110. Corry J, Peters L, Fisher R, et al. N2–N3 neck nodal control without planned neck dissection for clinical/radiologic complete responders—results of Trans-Tasman Radiation Oncology Group Study 98.02. Head Neck. 2008;30:737–742
  111. Gourin CG, Williams HT, Seabolt WN, et al. Utility of positron emission tomography-computed tomography in identification of residual nodal disease after chemoradiation for advanced head and neck cancer. Laryngoscope. 2006;116:705–710
  112. Liauw SL, Mancuso AA, Amdur RJ, et al. Postradiotherapy neck dissection for lymph node-positive head and neck cancer: the use of computed tomography to manage the neck. J Clin Oncol. 2006;24:1421–1427
  113. Porceddu SV, Jarmolowski E, Hicks RJ, et al. Utility of positron emission tomography for the detection of disease in residual neck nodes after (chemo)radiotherapy in head and neck cancer. Head Neck. 2005;27:175–181
  114. Simon C, Goepfert H, Rosenthal DI, et al. Presence of malignant tumor cells in persistent neck disease after radiotherapy for advanced squamous cell carcinoma of the oropharynx is associated with poor survival. Eur Arch Otorhinolaryngol. 2006;263:313–318
  115. Carroll WR, Locher JL, Canon CL, et al. Pretreatment swallowing exercises improve swallow function after chemoradiation. Laryngoscope. 2008;118:39–43
  116. Skoner JM, Andersen PE, Cohen JI, et al. Swallowing function and tracheotomy dependence after combined-modality treatment including free tissue transfer for advanced-stage oropharyngeal cancer. Laryngoscope. 2003;113:1294–1298
  117. Shiley SG, Hargunani CA, Skoner JM, et al. Swallowing function after chemoradiation for advanced stage oropharyngeal cancer. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 2006;134:455–459
  118. Rosenthal DI, Lewin JS, Eisbruch A. Prevention and treatment of dysphagia and aspiration after chemoradiation for head and neck cancer. J Clin Oncol. 2006;24:2636–2643
  119. Eisbruch A, Schwartz M, Rasch C, et al. Dysphagia and aspiration after chemoradiotherapy for head-and-neck cancer: which anatomic structures are affected and can they be spared by IMRT?. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 2004;60:1425–1439
  120. Feng FY, Kim HM, Lyden TH, et al. Intensity-modulated radiotherapy of head and neck cancer aiming to reduce dysphagia: early dose-effect relationships for the swallowing structures. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 2007;68:1289–1298
  121. Eisbruch A, Levendag PC, Feng FY, et al. Can IMRT or brachytherapy reduce dysphagia associated with chemoradiotherapy of head and neck cancer? (The Michigan and Rotterdam experiences). Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 2007;69:S40–S42
  122. Lees J. Nasogastric and percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy feeding in head and neck cancer patients receiving radiotherapy treatment at a regional oncology unit: a two year study. Eur J Cancer Care (Engl). 1997;6:45–49
  123. Maccabee D, Sheppard BC. Prevention of percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy stoma metastases in patients with active oropharyngeal malignancy. Surg Endosc. 2003;17:1678
  124. Gillespie MB, Brodsky MB, Day TA, et al. Swallowing-related quality of life after head and neck cancer treatment. Laryngoscope. 2004;114:1362–1367
  125. Beaver ME, Matheny KE, Roberts DB, et al. Predictors of weight loss during radiotherapy. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 2001;125:645–648
  126. Beaver ME, Myers JN, Griffenberg L, et al. Percutaneous fluoroscopic gastrostomy tube placement in patients with head and neck cancer. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 1998;124:1141–1144
  127. Agra IM, Carvalho AL, Ulbrich FS, et al. Prognostic factors in salvage surgery for recurrent oral and oropharyngeal cancer. Head Neck. 2006;28:107–113
  128. Goodwin WJ. Salvage surgery for patients with recurrent squamous cell carcinoma of the upper aerodigestive tract: when do the ends justify the means?. Laryngoscope. 2000;110:1–18
  129. Kao J, Garofalo MC, Milano MT, et al. Reirradiation of recurrent and second primary head and neck malignancies: a comprehensive review. Cancer Treat Rev. 2003;29:21–30
  130. Milano MT, Vokes EE, Salama JK, et al. Twice-daily reirradiation for recurrent and second primary head-and-neck cancer with gemcitabine, paclitaxel, and 5-fluorouracil chemotherapy. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 2005;61:1096–1106
  131. De Crevoisier R, Domenge C, Wibault P, et al. Full dose reirradiation combined with chemotherapy after salvage surgery in head and neck carcinoma. Cancer. 2001;91:2071–2076
  132. Machtay M, Rosenthal DI, Chalian AA, et al. Pilot study of postoperative reirradiation, chemotherapy, and amifostine after surgical salvage for recurrent head-and-neck cancer. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 2004;59:72–77
  133. Dawson LA, Myers LL, Bradford CR, et al. Conformal re-irradiation of recurrent and new primary head-and-neck cancer. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 2001;50:377–385
  134. Langer CJ, Harris J, Horwitz EM, et al. Phase II study of low-dose paclitaxel and cisplatin in combination with split-course concomitant twice-daily reirradiation in recurrent squamous cell carcinoma of the head and neck: results of Radiation Oncology Group Protocol 9911. J Clin Oncol. 2007;25:4800–4805
  135. Cohen EE, Rosine D, Haraf DJ, et al. Phase I trial of tirapazamine, cisplatin, and concurrent accelerated boost reirradiation in patients with recurrent head and neck cancer. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 2007;67:678–684
  136. In:  Cummings C,  Fredrickson JM,  Harker LA, et al. editor. Otolaryngology Head and Neck Surgery. 2nd ed. St. Louis: Mosby Year Book; 1993;
  137. In:  Haagensen CD,  Feind CR,  Herter FP, et al. editor. The Lymphatics in Cancer. Philadelphia: Saunders; 1972;
  138. National Cancer Institute website. http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/pdq/treatment/oropharyngeal/HealthProfessional
  139. In:  Cummings CW,  Flint PW,  Harker LA, et al. editor. Cummings Otolaryngology Head and Neck Surgery. 4th ed. Philadelphia: Mosby Inc; 2004;

PII: S0011-3840(08)00155-X

doi: 10.1067/j.cpsurg.2008.10.003

Current Problems in Surgery
Volume 46, Issue 2 , Pages 119-184 , February 2009

Article Tools

* Image Usage & Resolution